Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-lj6df Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-10T12:46:19.442Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

17 - Dolphin Social Cognition

from Part III - Social Cognition

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 July 2021

By
Adam A. Pack
Edited by
Allison B. Kaufman ,
Josep Call  and
James C. Kaufman
Allison B. Kaufman
Affiliation:
University of Connecticut
Josep Call
Affiliation:
University of St Andrews, Scotland
James C. Kaufman
Affiliation:
University of Connecticut
Get access

Summary

Bottlenose dolphins are a large-brained, long-lived, highly social species, operating within a fission-fusion society characterized by broad multi-level social networks, extensive care giving and teaching of offspring, cooperative and diverse hunting tactics, long-term alliances, and learned vocal signals that broadcast an individual’s identity, can be used in referential exchanges and can be imitated by close associates.Observations of behavior and social interactions in the wild suggest that social cognition in the bottlenose dolphins is well developed.Over the past thrity years, experimental studies have revealed that bottlenose dolphins have decades long social memories of associates, can develop a broad concept of imitation that extends to arbitrary novel sounds and social behaviors presented in a variety of contexts as well as to self-initiated behaviors.Dolphins have also been shown to be able to learn about and appreciate the social requisites of cooperative behavior, can spontaneously understand the referential character of human-initiated social signals involving pointing and gazing, and can employ pointing productively in communicative exchanges with humans to achieve goals.Collectively, dolphin social-cognition abilities are sophisticated and similar in several aspects to those of other species living within complex social networks, such as elephants, chimpanzees, and humans.

Keywords

bottlenose dolphinssocial cognitionlong-term social memoryimitationpointinggazingjoint-attentioncooperative learning
Type
Chapter
Information
The Cambridge Handbook of Animal Cognition , pp. 383 - 414
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2021

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abramson, J. Z., Hernandez-Lloreda, V., Call, J., & Colmernares, F. (2012). Experimental evidence for action imitation in killer whales (Orcinus orca). Animal Cognition, 16, 11–22.Google Scholar
Bahrick, H. P., Bahrick, P. O., & Wittlinger, R. P. (1975). Fifty years of memory for names and faces: A cross sectional approach. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 104, 54–75.Google Scholar
Bauer, G. B. & Johnson, C. M. (1994). Trained motor imitation by bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus). Perceptual Motor Skills, 79, 1307–1315.Google Scholar
Bender, C. E., Herzing, D. L., & Bjorklund, D. F. (2008). Evidence of teaching in Atlantic spotted dolphins (Stenella frontalis) by mother dolphins foraging in the presence of their calves. Animal Cognition, 12, 43–53.Google Scholar
Bering, J. M. (2004). A critical review of the “enculturation hypothesis”: The effects of human rearing on great ape social cognition. Animal Cognition, 7, 201–212.Google Scholar
Brauer, J., Call, J., & Tomasello, M. (2005). All great ape species follow gaze to distant locations around barriers. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 119, 145–154.Google Scholar
Brenner, J. & Smith, A. (2013). 72% of online adults are social networking site users. Pew Internet & American Life Project. Retrieved from www.pewinternet.org/Reports/2013/social-networking-sites/Findings.aspxGoogle Scholar
Bruck, J. N. (2013). Decades-long social memory in bottlenose dolphins. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 280, 20131726.Google Scholar
Butterworth, G. (1995). Origins of Mind in Perception and Action. In Moore, C. & Dunham, P. J. (Eds.), Joint Attention: Its Origins and Role in Development (pp. 29–40). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Byrne, R. W. (2002). Imitation of novel complex actions. What does the evidence from animals mean? Advances in the Study of Behavior, 21, 77–105.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Byrne, R. W. & Whiten, A. (1988). Machiavellian Intelligence: Social Expertise and the Evolution of Intellect in Monkeys, Apes and Humans. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press.Google Scholar
Byrne, R. W. & Russon, A. E. (1998) Learning by imitation: A hierarchical approach. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 21, 667–721.Google Scholar
Call, J. (2001). Chimpanzee social cognition, Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 5, 388–393.Google Scholar
Call, J. & Tomasello, M. (1999). A nonverbal false belief task: The performance of children and great apes. Child Development, 70, 381–395.Google Scholar
Call, J. & Tomasello, M. (2003); Social Cognition. In Maestripieri, D. (Ed.), Primate Psychology, (234–253), Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Caro, T. M. & Hauser, M. D. (1992). Is there teaching in nonhuman animals? Quarterly Review of Biology, 67, 151–174.Google Scholar
Carpenter, M., Nagell, K., & Tomasello, M. (1998). Social cognition, joint attention, and communicative competence from 9 to 15 months of age. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, Serial No. 255, 63(4). Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Connor, R. C. (2007). Dolphin social intelligence: Complex alliance relationships in bottlenose dolphins and a consideration of selective environments for extreme brain size evolution in mammals. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 362, 587–602.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Connor, R. C., Wells, R. S., Mann, J., & Read, A. J. (2000). The Bottlenose Dolphin: Social Relationships in a Fission-Fusion Society. In Mann, J., Connor, R. C., Tyack, P. L., and Whitehead, H. (Eds.), Cetacean Societies: Field Studies of Dolphins and Whales (pp. 91–126). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Connor, R. & Mann, J. (2006). Social Cognition in the Wild: Machiavellian Dolphins? In Hurley, S. & Nudds, M. (Eds.), Rational Animals? (pp. 329–367). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cooper, J. J., Ashton, C., Bishop, S., West, R., Mills, D. S., & Young, R. J. (2003). Clever hounds: Social cognition in the domestic dog (Canis familiaris). Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 81, 229–244.Google Scholar
Cusick, J. A. & Herzing, D. L. (2014). The dynamic of aggression: How individual and group factors affect the long-term interspecific aggression between two sympatric species of dolphin. Ethology, 120, 287–303.Google Scholar
Dautenhahn, K. & Nehaniv, C. L. (2002). Imitation in Animals and Artifacts. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Elphinston, R. A. & Noller, P. (2011). Time to face it! Facebook intrusion and the implications for romantic jealousy and relationship satisfaction. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 14, 631–635. http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2010.0318CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fripp, D., Owen, C., Quintana-Rizzo, E., Shapiro, A., Buckstaff, K., Jankowski, K., Wells, R. et al. (2005). Bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) calves appear to model their signature whistles on the signature whistles of community members. Animal Cognition, 8, 17–26.Google Scholar
Halina, M, Liebal, K., & Tomasello, M. (2018) The goal of ape pointing. PLoS One, 13, e0195182. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0195182Google Scholar
Herman, L. M. (1980) Cognitive Characteristics of Dolphins. In Herman, L. M. (Ed.), Cetacean Behavior: Mechanisms and Functions (pp. 363–429). New York: Wiley Interscience.Google Scholar
Herman, L. M. (1986). Cognition and Language Competencies of Bottlenosed Dolphins. In Schusterman, R. J., Thomas, J., & Wood, F. G. (Eds.), Dolphin Cognition and Behavior: A Comparative Approach (pp. 221–251). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Herman, L. M. (2002). Vocal, Social, and Self-Imitation by Bottlenosed Dolphins. In Nehaniv, C. & Dautenhahn, K. (Eds.), Imitation in Animals and Artifacts (pp. 63–108). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Herman, L. M. (2006). Intelligence and Rational Behaviour in the Bottlenosed Dolphin. In Hurley, S. & Nudds, M. (Eds.), Rational Animals? (pp. 439–467). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Herman, L. M. (2012). Body and self in dolphins. Consciousness and Cognition, 21, 526–545.Google Scholar
Herman, L. M. & Gordon, J. A. (1974). Auditory delayed matching in the bottlenosed dolphin. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 21, 19–26.Google Scholar
Herman, L. M., Richards, D. G., & Wolz, J. P. (1984). Comprehension of sentences by bottlenosed dolphins. Cognition, 16, 129–219.Google Scholar
Herman, L. M., Morrel-Samuels, P., & Brown, L. (1989). Behavioral mimicry of live and televised models by bottlenosed dolphins. Paper presented a the 30th Annual Meeting of the Psychonomic Society, Atlanta, GA.Google Scholar
Herman, L. M., Hovancik, J. R., Gory, J. D., & Bradshaw, G. L. (1989). Generalization of visual matching by a bottlenosed dolphin (Tursiops truncatus): Evidence for invariance of cognitive performance with visual or auditory materials. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 15, 124–136.Google Scholar
Herman, L. M., Pack, A. A., & Morrel-Samuels, P. (1993). Conceptual and Representational Abilities in Bottlenosed Dolphins. In Roitblat, H. R., Herman, L. M., & Nachtigall, P. (Eds.), Language and Communication: Comparative Perspectives (pp. 403–442). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Herman, L. M. & Uyeyama, R. K. (1999). The dolphin’s grammatical competency: Comments on Kako (1999). Animal Learning and Behavior, 27, 18–23.Google Scholar
Herman, L. M., Abichandani, S. L., Elhajj, A. N., Herman, E. Y. K., Sanchez, J. L., & Pack, A. A. (1999). Dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) comprehend the referential character of the human pointing gesture. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 113, 1–18.Google Scholar
Herman, L. M., Matus, D., Herman, E. Y K., Ivancic, M., & Pack, A. A. (2001). The bottlenosed dolphin’s (Tursiops truncatus) understanding of gestures as symbolic representations of body parts. Animal Learning and Behavior, 29, 250–264.Google Scholar
Herzing, D. L. (2000). Acoustics and Social Behavior of Wild Dolphins: Implications for a Sound Society. In Au, W. W. L., Popper, A. N., & Fay, R. R. (Eds.), Hearing in Whales and Dolphins (pp. 225–272). New York: Springer-Verlag.Google Scholar
Heyes, C. (2011). Automatic imitation. Psychological Bulletin, 137, 463–483.Google Scholar
Huggenberger, S. (2008). The size and complexity of dolphin brains: A paradox? Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, 88, 1103–1108.Google Scholar
Hurley, S. & Nudds, M. (2006). Rational Animals? New York: Oxford University Press Inc..Google Scholar
Jaakkola, K., Guarino, E. & Rodriguez, M. (2010). Blindfolded imitation in a bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus). International Journal of Comparative Psychology, 23, 671–688.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jaakkola, K., Guarino, E., Rodriguez, M., Erb, L., & Trone, M. (2010). What do dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) understand about hidden objects? Animal Cognition, 13, 103–120.Google Scholar
Jaakkola, K., Guarino, E., Rodriguez, M., & Hecksher, J. (2013). Switching strategies: A dolphin’s use of passive and active acoustics to imitate motor actions. Animal Cognition, 16, 701–709.Google Scholar
Jaakkola, K., Guarino, E., Donegan, K., & King, S. L. (2018). Bottlenose dolphins can understand their partner’s role in a cooperative task. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 285, 20180948. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2018.0948Google Scholar
Janik, V. M. (2000). Whistle matching in wild bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus). Science, 289, 1355–1357.Google Scholar
Janik, V. M. & Slater, P. J. B. (1998). Context-specific use suggests that bottlenose dolphins signature whistles are cohesion calls. Animal Behaviour, 56, 829–838.Google Scholar
Janik, V. M. & Slater, P. J. B. (2000). The different roles of social learning in vocal communication. Animal Cognition, 60, 1–11.Google Scholar
Janik, V. M. & Sayigh, L. S. (2013). Communication in bottlenose dolphins: 50 years of signature whistle research. Journal of Comparative Physiology A, 199, 479–489.Google Scholar
Johnson, C. M., Sullivan, J., Buck, C. L., Trexel, J., & Scarpuzzi, M. (2015). Object permanence and invisible displacement with dynamic visual occlusion in bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops spp.). Animal Cognition, 18, 179–193.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaminski, J. & Nitszchner, M. (2013). Do dogs get the point? A review of dog-human communication ability. Learning and Motivation, 44, 294–302.Google Scholar
King, S. L. & Janik, V. (2013). Bottlenose dolphins can use learned vocal labels to address each other. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 32, 13216–13221.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
King, S. L., Guarino, E., Donegan, K., McMullen, C., & Jaakkola, K. (2021) Evidence that bottlenose dolphins can communicate with vocal signals to solve a cooperative task. Royal Society Open Science, 8: 202073. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.202073Google Scholar
Lakatos, G., Gacsi, M., Topal, J., & Miklosi, A. (2012). Comprehension and utilization of pointing gestures and gazing in dog-human communication in relatively complex situations. Animal Cognition, 15, 201–213.Google Scholar
Marino, L. (2015). The Brain: Evolution, Structure and Function. In Herzing, D. & Johnson, C. (Eds.), Dolphin Cognition and Communication (pp. 3–18). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
McComb, K., Moss, C., Sayailel, S., & Baker, L. (2000). Unusually extensive networks of vocal recognition in African elephants. Animal Behaviour, 59, 1103–1109.Google Scholar
McDaniel, B. T. & Coyne, S. M. (2014). “Technoference”: The interference of technology in coupled relationships and implications for women’s personal relational well-being. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 5, 85–98.Google Scholar
Mercado, E. III, Murray, S. O., Uyeyama, R. K., Pack, A. A., & Herman, L. M. (1998). Memory for recent actions in the bottlenosed dolphin (Tursiops truncatus): Repetition of arbitrary behaviors using an abstract rule. Animal Learning and Behavior, 26, 210–218.Google Scholar
Met, A., Miklosi, A., & Lakatos, G. (2014). Gaze-following behind barriers in domestic dogs. Animal Cognition, 17, 1401–1405.Google Scholar
Miksis, J. L., Tyack, P. L., & Buck, J. R. (2002). Captive dolphins, Tursiops truncatus, develop signature whistles that match acoustic features of human-made model sounds. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 112, 728–789.Google Scholar
Miklosi, A., Topal, J., & Csanyi, T. (2004). Comparative social cognition: What can dogs teach us? Animal Behaviour, 67, 995–1004.Google Scholar
Miklosi, A. & Soproni, K. (2006). A comparative analysis of the animals’ understanding of the human pointing gesture. Animal Cognition, 9, 81–93.Google Scholar
Myers, D. G. & Twenge, J. M. (2018) Exploring Social Psychology. McGraw-Hill EducationGoogle Scholar
Pack, A. A. (2010). The synergy of laboratory and field studies of dolphin behavior and cognition. International Journal of Comparative Psychology, 23, 538–565.Google Scholar
Pack, A. A. (2015). Experimental Studies of Dolphin Cognitive Abilities. In Herzing, D. & Johnson, C. (Eds.), Dolphin Cognition and Communication, (pp. 175–200). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Pack, A. A. (2018). Language Research: Dolphins. In Vonk, J. & Shackelford, T. (Eds.). Encyclopedia of Animal Cognition and Behavior. Cham, Switzerland: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-47829-6. https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-3-319-47829-6_1628-1Google Scholar
Pack, A. A. (2019). Pointing. In Vonk, J. and Shackelford, T. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Animal Cognition and Behavior. Cham, Switzerland: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-47829-6_753-1Google Scholar
Pack, A. A. & Herman, L. M. (1995). Sensory integration in the bottlenosed dolphin: Immediate recognition of complex shapes across the senses of echolocation and vision. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 98, 722–733.Google Scholar
Pack, A. A. & Herman, L. M. (2004). Dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) comprehend the referent of both static and dynamic human gazing and pointing in an object choice task. Journal of Comparative Psychology. 118, 160–171.Google Scholar
Pack, A. A. & Herman, L. M. (2006). Dolphin social cognition: Our current understanding. Aquatic Mammals, 32, 443–460.Google Scholar
Pack, A. A. & Herman, L. M. (2007). The dolphin’s (Tursiops truncatus) understanding of human gaze and pointing: Knowing what and where. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 121, 34–45.Google Scholar
Pfandler, E., Lakatos, G., & Miklosi, A. (2013). Eighteen-month-old human infants show intensive development in comprehension of different types of pointing gestures. Animal Cognition, 16, 711–719.Google Scholar
Povinelli, D. J., Reaux, J. E., Bierschwale, D. T., Allain, A. D., & Simon, B. B. (1997). Exploitation of pointing as a referential gesture in young children, but no adolescent chimpanzees. Cognitive Development, 12, 423–461.Google Scholar
Premack, D. & Woodruff, G. (1978). Does the chimpanzee have a theory of mind? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 4, 515–526.Google Scholar
Rasmussen, L. E. L. (1995). Evidence for long-term chemical memory in elephants. Chemical Senses, 20, 762.Google Scholar
Reiss, D. & McCowan, B. (1993). Spontaneous vocal mimicry and production by bottlenosed dolphins (Tursiops truncatus): Evidence for vocal learning. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 107, 301–312.Google Scholar
Reiss, D. & Marino, L. (2001). Mirror self-recognition in the bottlenose dolphin: A case for cognitive convergence. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 89, 5837–5942.Google Scholar
Richards, D. G., Wolz, J. P., & Herman, L. M. (1984). Vocal mimicry of computer generated sounds and vocal labeling of objects by a bottlenosed dolphin, Tursiops truncatus. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 98, 10–28.Google Scholar
Ridgway, S, Carder, D., Finneran, J., Keogh, M., Kamolnick, T, Todd, M., et al. (2006). Dolphin continuous auditory vigilance for five days. Journal of Experimental Biology, 209, 3621–3628.Google Scholar
Roitblat, H. R., Herman, L. M., & Nachtigall, P. (1993), Language and Communication: Comparative Perspectives. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Seyfarth, R. M. & Cheney, D. L. (2015). Social cognition. Animal Behaviour, 103, 191–202.Google Scholar
Shapiro, A. D., Janik, V. M., & Slater, P. J. B. (2003). A gray seal’s (Halichoerus grypus) responses to experimenter-given pointing and directional cues. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 117, 355–362.Google Scholar
Tauzin, T., Csik, A., Kis, A., & Topal, J. (2015). What or where? The meaning of referential human pointing for dogs (Canis familiaris). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 129, 334–338.Google Scholar
The International Social Cognition Network www.ucl.ac.uk/~ucjtrc1/ISCON/, publisher of the journal Social Cognition.Google Scholar
Thompson, R. K. R. & Herman, L. M. (1977). Memory for lists of sounds by the bottlenosed dolphin: Convergence of memory processes with humans? Science, 195, 501–503.Google Scholar
Tomasello, M., Savage-Rumbaugh, S., & Kruger, A. C. (1993). Imitative learning of actions on objects by children, chimpanzees, and enculturated chimpanzees. Child Development, 64, 1688–1705.Google Scholar
Tomasello, M. & Call, J. (1997). Primate Cognition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Tomasello, M., Hare, B., & Agnetta, B. (1999). Chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes, follow gaze direction geometrically. Animal Behaviour, 58, 769–777.Google Scholar
Torres, L. G. & Read, A. J. (2009). Where to catch a fish? The influence of foraging tactics on the ecology of bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) in Florida Bay, Florida. Marine Mammal Science, 25, 797–815.Google Scholar
Tschudin, A., Call, J., Dunbar, R. I. M., Harris, G., & van der Elst, C. (2001). Comprehension of signs by dolphins (Tursiops truncatus). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 115, 100–105.Google Scholar
Tschudin, A. (2006). Belief Attribution Tasks with Dolphins: What Social Minds Can Reveal about Animal Rationality. In Hurley, S. & Nudds, M. (Eds.), Rational Animals? (413–436), Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Tyack, P. L. (1986). Whistle repertoires of two bottlenosed dolphins, Tursiops truncatus: Mimicry of signature whistles? Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 18, 251–257.Google Scholar
de Waal, F. B. M. & Tyack, P. L. (2003). Animal Social Complexity: Intelligence, Culture, and Individualized Societies. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Wells, R. S. (2003). Dolphin Social Complexity: Lessons from Long-Term Study and Life History. In de Waal, F. B. M. & Tyack, P. L (Eds.), Animal Social Complexity: Intelligence, Culture and Individualized Societies (pp. 32–56). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Whiten, A., Custance, D. M., Gomez, J. C., Teixidor, P., & Bard, K. A. (1996). Imitative learning of artificial fruit processing in children (Homo sapiens) and chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 110, 3–14.Google Scholar
Xitco, M. J. Jr. (1988). Mimicry of modeled behaviors by bottlenose dolphins. Unpublished master’s thesis, University of Hawaii, Honolulu.Google Scholar
Xitco, M. J. Jr., Gory, J. D., & Kuczaj II, S. A. (2001). Spontaneous pointing by bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus). Animal Cognition, 4, 115–123.Google Scholar
Xitco, M. J. Jr., Gory, J. D., & Kuczaj II, S. A. (2004). Dolphin pointing is linked to the attentional behavior of a receiver. Animal Cognition, 7, 231–238.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×