Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-4rdpn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-14T06:03:40.323Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

2 - The Disempowered Many

When the Weak Suffered What They Must

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  16 April 2020

Amrita Narlikar
Affiliation:
German Institute for Global and Area Studies (GIGA)
Get access

Summary

In this chapter, I trace the negotiating history of the post-war multilateral trading system, from the 1940s to 1995 (i.e. the creation of the WTO), through the lens of poverty narratives. I show how the two main narratives emerged, and how they interacted with each other. I further explain why the narrative that 'won' and achieved dominance for the next several decades was largely unsympathetic to the cause of poverty alleviation, especially when mitigation strategies were discussed in the context of the developing world. I conduct this analysis via three negotiation landmarks, plus a fourth case of decision-making processes. The fifth section of the chapter explores the extent to which the powerlessness of the small and poor extended to other areas of international negotiation as well as other aspects of political and social life.

Type
Chapter

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Breda dos Santos, Norma. 2016. ‘Latin American countries and the establishment of the multilateral trading system: The Havana Conference (1947–48).’ Brazilian Journal of Political Economy. 36: 2. Pp. 309329.Google Scholar
Breda dos Santos, Norma, Farias, Rogerio, and Cunha, Raphael. 2005. ‘Generalized system of preferences in general agreement on tariffs and trade/World Trade Organization: History and current issues.’ Journal of World Trade. 39: 4. Pp. 637370.Google Scholar
British Memorandum. 1948. Memorandum by the President of the Board of Trade: Cabinet. CP (48) 84. 12 March. http://filestore.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pdfs/large/cab-129-25.pdf. Pp. 146–151.Google Scholar
Busch, Marc. 2007. ‘Overlapping institutions, forum shopping, and dispute settlement in international trade.’ International Organization. 61: 4. Pp. 735761.Google Scholar
Canadian External Relations Documents. 1948a. Secretary of State for External Affairs to heads of post abroad. Volume 14: 581. Circular Document No. A 131. Ottawa. 4 June. http://epe.lac-bac.gc.ca/100/206/301/faitc-aecic/history/2013-05-03/www.international.gc.ca/department/history-histoire/dcer/details-en.asp@intRefid=10321.Google Scholar
Canadian External Relations Documents. 1948b. Chief Delegate, Delegation to United Nations Conference on Trade and Employment, to Secretary of State for External Affairs. Vol 14: 582. Dispatch 165. Berne. 13 July. http://epe.lac-bac.gc.ca/100/206/301/faitc-aecic/history/2013–05-03/www.international.gc.ca/department/history-histoire/dcer/details-en.asp@intRefid=10322.Google Scholar
Clayton, William. 1949. Foreword for Wilcox, Clair. A Charter for World Trade. New York: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Cooper, Richard N. 1977. ‘A new international economic order for mutual gain.’ Foreign Policy. 26: Spring. Pp. 66120.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Daunton, Martin. 2010. From Bretton Woods to Havana: Multilateral deadlocks in historical perspective. In Narlikar, Amrita (ed.). Deadlocks in Multilateral Negotiations: Causes and Solutions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Daunton, Martin. 2012. The inconsistent quartet: Free trade versus competing goals. In Narlikar, Amrita, Daunton, Martin and Stern, Robert M. (eds). The Oxford Handbook on the World Trade Organization. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Diebold, William Jr. 1952. ‘The end of the I.T.O.’ Essays in International Finance. 16.Google Scholar
Dunkel, Arthur. 1984. International Trade and Economic Growth. Address by Mr. Arthur Dunkel, Director-General, General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, to the European-Atlantic Group, London, 20 February. GATT/1335.Google Scholar
Easterly, William. 2003. ‘Can foreign aid buy growth?Journal of Economic Perspectives. 17: 3. Pp. 2348.Google Scholar
Easterly, William. 2006. The White Man’s Burden: Why the West’s Efforts to Aid the Rest Have Done So Much Ill and So Little Good. London: Penguin.Google Scholar
Jr. Ferguson, Clarence Clyde. 1975. ‘US discusses approach to the seventh special session of the UN General Assembly.’ Statement by Clarence Clyde Ferguson Jr., US Representative in the UN Economic and Social Council, made before the 59th Session of the ECOSOC on 4 July. Department of State Bulletin, 73: 1885, 11 August.Google Scholar
Finger, J. Michael. 2001. The Uruguay Round agreements: Problems for developing countries. The World Economy. 24: 9. Pp. 10971108.Google Scholar
Finger, J. Michael and Schuler, Philip. 1999. Implementation of Uruguay Round commitments: The development challenge. World Bank Working Paper. No. 2215. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank.Google Scholar
Fukuyama, Francis. 1989. ‘The End of History?The National Interest. 16: 3. Pp. 118.Google Scholar
GATT. 1947. General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. www.wto.org/english/docs_e/legal_e/gatt47.pdf.Google Scholar
GATT. 1953. Speech by Mr. Joao Alberto Lins de Barros (Brazil). Delivered in Plenary Session. 18 September. Eighth Session of the Contracting Parties. GATT Press Release/ 125. 21 September. https://docs.wto.org/gattdocs/q/GG/GATT/125.PDF.Google Scholar
GATT. 1954. Speech by Sir N. Raghavan Pillai (India). Delivered in Plenary Session, 9 November. Ninth Session of the Contracting Parties. GATT Press Release/ 185. 11 November. https://docs.wto.org/gattdocs/q/GG/GATT/185.PDF.Google Scholar
GATT. 1956. The Rules and Procedures for the Tariff Negotiations Commencing on 18 January 1956. Tariff Conference. TN.56/4. www.wto.org/gatt_docs/English/SULPDF/90330319.pdf.Google Scholar
GATT. 1963. Statement made by the Honourable Mr C.G. Kahaha, Minister for Commerce and Industry, Tanganyika. On 17 May 1963. Meeting of Ministers. GATT Press Release. GATT/772. https://docs.wto.org/gattdocs/q/GG/GATT/772.PDF.Google Scholar
GATT. 1965. Second Special Session: Summary record of the fifth meeting, held at the Palais des Nations, on 8 February. 2SS/SR.5. www.wto.org/gatt_docs/English/SULPDF/90280219.pdf.Google Scholar
GATT. 1967. Statement by H.E. Major-General, H.W.G. Wijeyekoon. Ambassador of Ceylon. At the Review of the Work of the Contracting Parties and Future Programme. On 24 November. W.24/60. 30 November.Google Scholar
GATT. 1979. Decision on Differential and More Favourable Treatment, Reciprocity and Fuller Participation of Developing Countries. LT/TR/D/1. 28 November. www.wto.org/english/docs_e/legal_e/tokyo_enabling_e.pdf.Google Scholar
GATT. 1994. Uruguay Round Agreements: Agreement Establishing the WTO. www.wto.org/english/docs_e/legal_e/04-wto_e.htm.Google Scholar
GATT Analytic Index. 1994a. ‘Article XVIII: Governmental Assistance to Economic Development.’ GATT Analytic Index. www.wto.org/english/res_e/publications_e/ai17_e/gatt1994_art18_gatt47.pdf.Google Scholar
GATT Analytic Index. 1994b. ‘Part IV: Trade and Development.’ GATT Analytic Index. www.wto.org/english/res_e/booksp_e/gatt_ai_e/part4_e.pdf.Google Scholar
Haberler, Gottfried, da Oliveira Campos, Roberto, Meade, James, and Tinbergen, Jan. 1958. Trends in International Trade: Report by a Panel of Experts. Geneva: GATT. www.wto.org/english/res_e/booksp_e/gatt_trends_in_international_trade.pdf.Google Scholar
Hamilton, Colleen and Whalley, John. 1989. ‘Coalitions in the Uruguay Round.’ Weltwirtschaftliches Archiv. 125: 3. Pp. 547556.Google Scholar
Helleiner, Eric. 2014. Forgotten Foundations of Bretton Woods. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Helleiner, Eric. 2015. ‘India and the neglected development dimensions of Bretton Woods.’ Economic and Political Weekly. 1: 29. Pp. 3139.Google Scholar
Higgott, Richard and Cooper, Andrew. 1990. ‘Middle power leadership and coalition building: Australia, the Cairns Group, and the Uruguay Round of Trade Negotiations.’ International Organization. 44: 4. Pp. 589632.Google Scholar
Howse, Robert and Trebilock, Michael. 1999. The Regulation of International Trade. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Irwin, Douglas. 1995. ‘The GATT in historical perspective.’ American Economic Review. 85: 2. Pp. 323328.Google Scholar
Johnson, Harry. 1967. Economic Policies towards Less Developed Countries. Brookings: Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Keynes, John Maynard. 1919. Economic Consequences of the Peace. London: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Krasner, Stephen D. 1985. Structural Conflict: The Third World Against Global Liberalism. Berkley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Krauthammer, Charles. 1990. ‘“The Unipolar Moment”. America and the World.’ Foreign Affairs. 70: 1. Pp. 2333.Google Scholar
Meade, James. 1942. A proposal for an international commercial union. In Howson, Susan (ed.), The Collected Papers of James Meade Vol. III: International Economics. London: Unwin Hyman.Google Scholar
Morgenthau, Henry. 1944. Inaugural address (1 July). United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference: Bretton Woods, Final act and related documents, New Hampshire, July 1 to July 22, 1944. Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1944. www.cvce.eu/content/publication/2003/12/12/34c4153e-6266-4e84-88d7-f655abf1395f/publishable_en.pdf.Google Scholar
Moyo, Dambisa. 2009. Dead Aid: Why Aid Is Not Working and How There Is Another Way for Africa. New York: Penguin.Google Scholar
Myrdal, Gunnar. 1975. ‘The Equality Issue in World Development.’ Nobel Prize Lecture. 17 March. www.nobelprize.org/prizes/economic-sciences/1974/myrdal/lecture/.Google Scholar
Narlikar, Amrita. 2003. International Trade and Developing Countries: Developing Countries in the GATT and WTO. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Narlikar, Amrita. 2012. Collective agency, systemic consequences: Bargaining coalitions in the GATT and WTO. In Narlikar, Amrita, Daunton, Martin, and Stern, Robert M. (eds). The Oxford Handbook on the WTO. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
New York Times. 1964. ‘Mr Ball’s Geneva Homily.’ New York Times Archives. 26 March. P. 34.Google Scholar
Ostry, Sylvia. 2004. The future of the World Trading System: Beyond Doha. In Kirton, John and Trebilock, Michael (eds). Hard Choices, Soft Law: Voluntary Standards in Global Trade. London: Ashgate (republished 2016, London: Routledge).Google Scholar
Özden, Caglar and Reinhardt, Eric. 2005. ‘The perversity of preferences: GSP and developing country trade policies, 1976–2000.’ Journal of Development Economics. 78: 1. Pp. 121.Google Scholar
Panagariya, Arvind. 2002. ‘EU preferential trade arrangements and developing countries.’ The World Economy. 25: 10. Pp. 14151432.Google Scholar
Preeg, Ernst. 2012. ‘The Uruguay Round negotiations and the creation of the WTO.’ In Narlikar, Amrita, Daunton, Martin, and Stern, Robert M. (eds). The Oxford Handbook on the WTO. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Ricupero, Rubens. 1998. ‘Integration of developing countries into the multilateral trading system. In Bhagwati, Jagdish and Hirsch, Mathias (eds). The Uruguay Round and Beyond: Essays in Honour of Arthur Dunkel. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Ruggie, John. 1982. ‘International regimes, transactions and change: Embedded liberalism in the postwar economic order.’ International Organization. 36: 2. Pp. 379415.Google Scholar
SUNS Online. 1993. ‘Indian Farmers rally against Dunkel draft and MNCs.’ Special United Nations Service. 5 March. www.sunsonline.org/trade/areas/agricult/03051093.htm.Google Scholar
Tobin, Jennifer and Busch, Marc. 2019. ‘The disadvantage of membership: How joining the GATT/WTO undermines GSP.’ World Trade Review. 18: 1. Pp. 133160.Google Scholar
Toye, John. 2014. UNCTAD at Fifty: A Short History. UNCTAD/OSG/2014/1. Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. https://unctad.org/en/PublicationsLibrary/osg2014d1_en.pdf.Google Scholar
Toye, John and Toye, Richard. 2004. The UN and Global Political Economy: Trade, Finance, and Development. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Toye, Richard. 2003. ‘Developing multilateralism: The Havana charter and the fight for the International Trade Organization, 1947–1948.’ International Historical Review. 25: 2. Pp. 282305.Google Scholar
Toye, Richard. 2012. The international trade organisation. In Narlikar, Amrita, Daunton, Martin, and Stern, Robert M. (eds). The Oxford Handbook on the World Trade Organization. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Tucker, Robert. 1975. ‘Egalitarianism and International Politics.’ Commentary. September.Google Scholar
Tussie, Diana. 1993. ‘Holding the balance: The Cairns Group in the Uruguay Round.’ In Tussie, Diana and Glover, David (eds). Developing Countries in World Trade: Policies and Bargaining Strategies. Boulder: Lynne Rienner.Google Scholar
UN Conference on Trade and Employment. 1947. Heads of Delegations: Summary record of meeting. Havana. 24 December. E/cow.2/23. https://docs.wto.org/gattdocs/q/UN/ECONF2/23.PDF.Google Scholar
UN Conference on Trade and Employment. 1948. Final Act and Related Documents. Havana. April. www.wto.org/english/docs_e/legal_e/havana_e.pdf.Google Scholar
UN Economic and Social Council. 1946. Preparatory Committee of the international conference on trade and employment. Committee I. Summary record of meetings (part two). London. 22 October. E/PC/T/Cl/7. https://docs.wto.org/gattdocs/q/UN/EPCT/CI-7.PDF.Google Scholar
UN General Assembly. 1974. Resolution adopted by the General Assembly: 3201 (S-VI). Declaration on the Establishment of a New International Economic Order. A/RES/S-6/3201. 1 May. www.un-documents.net/s6r3201.htm.Google Scholar
US State Department. 1945. Proposals for Expansion of Trade and Employment. Developed by Technical Staff within the Government of the United States in Preparation for an International. Conference on Trade and Employment and Presented for Consideration by the Peoples of the World. Publication 2411. November. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org/files/docs/historical/eccles/036_04_0003.pdf.Google Scholar
Whalley, John. 1990. ‘Non-discriminatory discrimination: Special and differential treatment under the GATT for developing countries.’ The Economic Journal. 100: 403. Pp. 13181328.Google Scholar
Williamson, John. 1990. ‘What Washington means by policy reform.’ In Williamson, John (ed.). Latin American Adjustment: How Much Has Happened? Washington D.C.: Institute for International Economics.Google Scholar
Williamson, John. 2000. ‘What should the Bank think about the Washington Consensus?World Bank Research Observer. 15: 2. Pp. 251264.Google Scholar
Zeiler, Thomas. 1999. Free Trade, Free World: The Advent of the GATT. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.Google Scholar
Zeiler, Thomas. 2012. The expanding mandate of the GATT. In Narlikar, Amrita, Daunton, Martin and Stern, Robert (eds). The Oxford Handbook on the World Trade Organization. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

  • The Disempowered Many
  • Amrita Narlikar
  • Book: Poverty Narratives and Power Paradoxes in International Trade Negotiations and Beyond
  • Online publication: 16 April 2020
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108234191.002
Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

  • The Disempowered Many
  • Amrita Narlikar
  • Book: Poverty Narratives and Power Paradoxes in International Trade Negotiations and Beyond
  • Online publication: 16 April 2020
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108234191.002
Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

  • The Disempowered Many
  • Amrita Narlikar
  • Book: Poverty Narratives and Power Paradoxes in International Trade Negotiations and Beyond
  • Online publication: 16 April 2020
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108234191.002
Available formats
×