Element contents
Series: Elements in Criminology
Confronting School Violence
A Synthesis of Six Decades of Research
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 18 March 2022
Summary
School violence is a significant social concern. To better understand its sources, a comprehensive meta-analysis of the school violence and victimization literature was undertaken. Across 761 studies, the relative effects of 30 different individual, school, and community level correlates were assessed (8,790 effect size estimates). Violence and victimization were conceptualized broadly to include various forms of aggression and crime at school. The results revealed that the strongest correlates of school violence perpetration were antisocial behavior, deviant peers, antisocial attitudes, victimization, and peer rejection; and that the strongest correlates of school victimization were prior/other victimization, social competence, risk avoidance, antisocial behavior, and peer rejection. Extracurricular activities and school security devices had among the weakest associations in the meta-analysis, and several traditional criminological predictors did not perform well in the school context. We conclude with recommendations for theory, future research, and policy.
- Type
- Element
- Information
- Series: Elements in CriminologyOnline ISBN: 9781108891998Publisher: Cambridge University PressPrint publication: 05 May 2022
References
Addington, L. A. (2009). Cops and cameras: Public school security as a policy response to Columbine. American Behavioral Scientist, 52(10), 1426–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Agnew, R. (2006). Pressured into crime: An overview of general strain theory. Los Angeles: Roxbury.Google Scholar
Aizpitarte, A., Atherton, O. E., Zheng, L. R., Alonso-Arbiol, I., & Robins, R. W. (2019). Developmental precursors of relational aggression from late childhood through adolescence. Child Development, 90(1), 117–26.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Akers, R. L. (1998). Social learning and social structure: A general theory of crime and deviance. Boston: Northeastern University Press.Google Scholar
Alivernini, F., Manganelli, S., Cavicchiolo, E., & Lucidi, F. (2019). Measuring bullying and victimization among immigrant and native primary school students: Evidence from Italy. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 37(2), 226–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allemand, M., Steiger, A. E., & Fend, H. A. (2014). Empathy development in adolescence predicts social competencies in adulthood. Journal of Personality, 83(2), 229–41.Google ScholarPubMed
Aloe, A. M., Tanner-Smith, E. E., Becker, B. J., & Wilson, D. B. (2016). Synthesizing bivariate and partial effect sizes. Campbell Systematic Reviews, 12(1), 1–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arseneault, L., Bowes, L., & Shakoor, S. (2010). Bullying victimization in youths and mental health problems: “Much ado about nothing”? Psychological Medicine, 40(5), 717–29.Google Scholar
Arsenio, W. F., & Lemerise, E. A. (2001). Varieties of childhood bullying: Values, emotion processes, and social competence. Social Development, 10(1), 59–73.Google Scholar
Astor, R. A., Benbenishty, R., Haj-Yahia, M. M., et al. (2002). The awareness of risky peer group behaviors on school grounds as predictors of students’ victimization on school grounds: Part II – Junior high schools. Journal of School Violence, 1(3), 57–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Astor, R. A., Benbenishty, R., Vinokur, A. D., & Zeira, A. (2006). Arab and Jewish elementary school students’ perceptions of fear and school violence: Understanding the influence of school context. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 76(1), 91–118.Google Scholar
Astor, R. A., Guerra, N., & van Acker, R. (2010). How can we improve school safety research? Educational Researcher, 39(1), 69–78.Google Scholar
Astor, R. A., Meyer, H. A., Benbenishty, R., Marachi, R., & Rosemond, M. (2005). School safety interventions: Best practices and programs. Children and Schools, 27(1), 17–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Attar‐Schwartz, S. (2009). Peer sexual harassment victimization at school: The roles of student characteristics, cultural affiliation, and school factors. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 79(3), 407–20.Google Scholar
Averdijk, M., van Gelder, J. L., Eisner, M., & Ribeaud, D. (2016). Violence begets violence … but how? A decision‐making perspective on the victim-offender overlap. Criminology, 54(2), 282–306.Google Scholar
Bacchini, D., Esposito, G., & Affuso, G. (2009). Social experience and school bullying. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, 19(1), 17–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bae, H. O. (2016). Bullying involvement of Korean children in Germany and in Korea. School Psychology International, 37(1), 3–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baier, C. J., & Wright, B. R. (2001). “If you love me, keep my commandments”: A meta-analysis of the effect of religion on crime. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 38(1), 3–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baker, J. A. (1998). Are we missing the forest for the trees? Considering the social context of school violence. Journal of School Psychology, 36(1), 29–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baquedano-López, P., Alexander, R. A., & Hernandez, S. J. (2013). Equity issues in parental and community involvement in schools: What teacher educators need to know. Review of Research in Education, 37(1), 149–82.Google Scholar
Barnes, T. N., Smith, S. W., & Miller, M. D. (2014). School-based cognitive-behavioral interventions in the treatment of aggression in the United States: A meta-analysis. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 19(4), 311–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bauman, S. (2008). Victimization by bullying and harassment in high school: Findings from the 2005 Youth Risk Behavior Survey in a southwestern state. Journal of School Violence, 7(3), 86–104.Google Scholar
Bear, G. G., Yang, C., Mantz, L. S., & Harris, A. B. (2017). School-wide practices associated with school climate in elementary, middle, and high schools. Teaching and Teacher Education, 63, 372–83.Google Scholar
Becker, B. J. (2000). Multivariate meta-analysis. In Tinsley, H. E. A. & Brown, S. D. (eds.), Handbook of applied multivariate statistics and mathematical modeling (pp. 499–526). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Becker, G. S. (1968). Crime and punishment: An economic approach. Journal of Political Economy, 76(2), 169–217.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beelmann, A., & Lösel, F. (2021). A comprehensive meta-analysis of randomized evaluations of the effect of child social skills training on antisocial development. Journal of Developmental and Life-Course Criminology, 7(1), 41–65.Google Scholar
Bellmore, A. (2011). Peer rejection and unpopularity: Associations with GPAs across the transition to middle school. Journal of Educational Psychology, 103(2), 282–95.Google Scholar
Bellmore, A. D., Witkow, M. R., Graham, S., & Juvonen, J. (2004). Beyond the individual: The impact of ethnic context and classroom behavioral norms on victims’ adjustment. Developmental Psychology, 40(6), 1159–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Benbenishty, R., Astor, R. A., & Astor, R. (2005). School violence in context: Culture, neighborhood, family, school, and gender. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Benbenishty, R., Astor, R. A., Zeira, A., & Vinokur, A. D. (2002). Perceptions of violence and fear of school attendance among junior high school students in Israel. Social Work Research, 26(2), 71–87.Google Scholar
Benjamini, Y., & Hochberg, Y. (2000). On the adaptive control of the false discovery rate in multiple testing with independent statistics. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 25(1), 60–83.Google Scholar
Berg, M. T., & Mulford, C. F. (2020). Reappraising and redirecting research on the victim–offender overlap. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 21(1), 16–30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blake, J. J., Zhou, Q., Kwok, O. M., & Benz, M. R. (2016). Predictors of bullying behavior, victimization, and bully-victim risk among high school students with disabilities. Remedial and Special Education, 37(5), 285–95.Google Scholar
Blau, J. R., & Blau, P. M. (1982). The cost of inequality: Metropolitan structure and violent crime. American Sociological Review, 47(1), 114–29.Google Scholar
Boggess, L. N. (2016). Racial and ethnic change and serious student offending in Los Angeles middle and high schools. Crime & Delinquency, 62(5), 669–700.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bonta, J., & Andrews, D. A. (2017). The psychology of criminal conduct (sixth ed.). New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Bonta, J., Law, M., & Hanson, K. (1998). The prediction of criminal and violent recidivism among mentally disordered offenders: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 123(2), 123–42.Google Scholar
Borum, R., Cornell, D. G., Modzeleski, W., & Jimerson, S. R. (2010). What can be done about school shootings? A review of the evidence. Educational Researcher, 39(1), 27–37.Google Scholar
Braithwaite, J. (1989). Crime, shame and reintegration. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brank, E. M., Hoetger, L. A., & Hazen, K. P. (2012). Bullying. Annual Review of Law and Social Science, 8, 213–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Brown, E. C., Low, S., Smith, B. H., & Haggerty, K. P. (2011). Outcomes from a school-randomized controlled trial of Steps to Respect: A bullying prevention program. School Psychology Review, 40(3), 423–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brownson, R. C., Colditz, G. A., & Proctor, E. K. (eds.). (2017). Dissemination and implementation research in health: Translating science to practice (second ed.) New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bukowski, W. M., Bagwell, C., Castellanos, M., & Persram, R. J. (2020). Friendship in adolescence. In Hupp, S. & Jewell, J. D. (eds.), The Encyclopedia of Child and Adolescent Development (pp. 1–11). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Bunch, J., Clay-Warner, J., & McMahon-Howard, J. (2014). The effects of victimization on routine activities. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 41(5), 574–92.Google Scholar
Burgess, R. L., & Akers, R. L. (1966). A differential association-reinforcement theory of criminal behavior. Social Problems, 14(2), 128–47.Google Scholar
Bushman, B. J., Newman, K., Calvert, S. L., et al. (2016). Youth violence: What we know and what we need to know. American Psychologist, 71(1), 17–39.Google Scholar
Camodeca, M., Caravita, S. C., & Coppola, G. (2015). Bullying in preschool: The associations between participant roles, social competence, and social preference. Aggressive Behavior, 41(4), 310–21.Google Scholar
Caravita, S. C., di Blasio, P., & Salmivalli, C. (2009). Unique and interactive effects of empathy and social status on involvement in bullying. Social Development, 18(1), 140–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carbone-Lopez, K., Esbensen, F. A., & Brick, B. T. (2010). Correlates and consequences of peer victimization: Gender differences in direct and indirect forms of bullying. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 8(4), 332–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cecen-Celik, H., & Keith, S. (2019). Analyzing predictors of bullying victimization with routine activity and social bond perspectives. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 34(18), 3807–32.Google Scholar
Chambliss, W. J., & Seidman, R. B. (1971). Law, order, and power. Boston: Addison-Wesley.Google Scholar
CHDS K-12 School Shooting Database. (2020). https://www.chds.us/ssdb/ Washington, DC: Center for Homeland Defense and Security.Google Scholar
Chouhy, C., Madero-Hernandez, A., & Turanovic, J. J. (2017). The extent, nature, and consequences of school victimization: A review of surveys and recent research. Victims & Offenders, 12(6), 823–44.Google Scholar
Christensen, L. L., Fraynt, R. J., Neece, C. L., & Baker, B. L. (2012). Bullying adolescents with intellectual disability. Journal of Mental Health Research in Intellectual Disabilities, 5(1), 49–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chui, W. H., & Chan, H. C. O. (2015). Self-control, school bullying perpetration, and victimization among Macanese adolescents. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24(6), 1751–61.Google Scholar
Cillessen, A. H., & Lansu, T. A. (2015). Stability, correlates, and time-covarying associations of peer victimization from grade 4 to 12. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 44(3), 456–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cloward, R. A., & Ohlin, L. E. (1960). Delinquency and opportunity: A theory of delinquent gangs. New York: The Free Press.Google Scholar
Cohen, A. K. (1955). Delinquent boys: The culture of the gang. New York: The Free Press.Google Scholar
Cohen, L. E., & Felson, M. (1979). Social change and crime rate trends: A routine activity approach. American Sociological Review, 44(4), 588–608.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Collier, N. L., Brown, S. J., Montes, A. N., Pesta, G. B., Mears, D. P., & Siennick, S. E. (2019). Navigating get-tough and support-oriented philosophies for improving school safety: Insights from school administrators and school safety staff. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 44(5), 705–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Colvin, M. (2000). Crime and coercion: An integrated theory of chronic criminality. New York: St. Martins.Google Scholar
Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group. (1992). A developmental and clinical model for the prevention of conduct disorder: The FAST Track Program. Development and Psychopathology, 4(4), 509–27.Google Scholar
Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group. (2011). The effects of the Fast Track preventive intervention on the development of conduct disorder across childhood. Child Development, 82(1), 331–45.Google Scholar
Connell, N. M., Morris, R. G., & Piquero, A. R. (2017). Exploring the link between being bullied and adolescent substance use. Victims & Offenders, 12(2), 277–96.Google Scholar
Conroy, N. E. (2013). Rethinking adolescent peer sexual harassment: Contributions of feminist theory. Journal of School Violence, 12(4), 340–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cook, C. R., Williams, K. R., Guerra, N. G., Kim, T. E., & Sadek, S. (2010). Predictors of bullying and victimization in childhood and adolescence: A meta-analytic investigation. School Psychology Quarterly, 25(2), 65–83.Google Scholar
Cook, P. J., Gottfredson, D. C., & Na, C. (2010). School crime control and prevention. Crime and Justice, 39(1), 313–440.Google Scholar
Cornell, D. G. (2020). Threat assessment as a school violence prevention strategy. Criminology & Public Policy, 19(1), 235–52.Google Scholar
Cosgrove, H. E., & Nickerson, A. B. (2017). Anti-bullying/harassment legislation and educator perceptions of severity, effectiveness, and school climate: A cross-sectional analysis. Educational Policy, 31(4), 518–45.Google Scholar
Counts, J., Randall, K. N., Ryan, J. B., & Katsiyannis, A. (2018). School resource officers in public schools: A national review. Education and Treatment of Children, 41(4), 405–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crick, N. R., & Dodge, K. A. (1994). A review and reformulation of social information-processing mechanisms in children’s social adjustment. Psychological Bulletin, 115(1), 74–101.Google Scholar
Cullen, F. T. (2005). The twelve people who saved rehabilitation: How the science of criminology made a difference – The American Society of Criminology 2004 presidential address. Criminology, 43(1), 1–42.Google Scholar
Cullen, F. T., Wright, J. P., & Blevins, K. R. (eds.). (2006). Taking stock: The status of criminological theory – Advances in criminological theory, Vol. 15. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.Google Scholar
Dahlberg, L. L., & Potter, L. B. (2001). Youth violence: Developmental pathways and prevention challenges. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 20(1), 3–14.Google Scholar
Deakin, J., Taylor, E., & Kupchik, A. (eds.). (2018). The Palgrave international handbook of school discipline, surveillance, and social control. London: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de Bruyn, E. H., Cillessen, A. H., & Wissink, I. B. (2010). Associations of peer acceptance and perceived popularity with bullying and victimization in early adolescence. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 30(4), 543–66.Google Scholar
DeCamp, W., & Newby, B. (2015). From bullied to deviant: The victim–offender overlap among bullying victims. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 13(1), 3–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de Castro, B. O., Veerman, J. W., Koops, W., Bosch, J. D., & Monshouwer, H. J. (2002). Hostile attribution of intent and aggressive behavior: A meta‐analysis. Child Development, 73(3), 916–34.Google Scholar
de Ridder, D. T., Lensvelt-Mulders, G., Finkenauer, C., Stok, F. M., & Baumeister, R. F. (2012). Taking stock of self-control: A meta-analysis of how trait self-control relates to a wide range of behaviors. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 16(1), 76–99.Google Scholar
Deryol, R., & Wilcox, P. (2020). Physical health risk factors across traditional bullying and cyberbullying victim and offender groups. Victims & Offenders, 15(4), 520–47.Google Scholar
Deryol, R., Wilcox, P., & Dolu, O. (2017). School-based violent victimization in Turkey: An examination of the cross-national generality of lifestyle-routine activities and self-control theories. Victims & Offenders, 12(6), 913–38.Google Scholar
Destin, M., Richman, S., Varner, F., & Mandara, J. (2012). “Feeling” hierarchy: The pathway from subjective social status to achievement. Journal of Adolescence, 35(6), 1571–9.Google Scholar
DeWall, C. N., Twenge, J. M., Gitter, S. A., & Baumeister, R. F. (2009). It’s the thought that counts: The role of hostile cognition in shaping aggressive responses to social exclusion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96(1), 45–59.Google Scholar
Dijkstra, J. K., Lindenberg, S., Veenstra, R., et al.et (2010). Influence and selection processes in weapon carrying during adolescence: The roles of status, aggression, and vulnerability. Criminology, 48(1), 187–220.Google Scholar
Dodge, K. A., & Coie, J. D. (1987). Social-information-processing factors in reactive and proactive aggression in children’s peer groups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53(6), 1146–58.Google Scholar
Dodge, K. A., Greenberg, M. T., Malone, P. S., & The Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group. (2008). Testing an idealized dynamic cascade model of the development of serious violence in adolescence. Child Development, 79(6), 1907–27.Google Scholar
Dong, B., Morrison, C. N., Branas, C. C., Richmond, T. S., & Wiebe, D. J. (2020). As violence unfolds: A space-time study of situational triggers of violent victimization among urban youth. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 36(1), 119–52.Google Scholar
Donohue, J. J., & Levitt, S. D. (2001). The impact of legalized abortion on crime. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 116(2), 379–420.Google Scholar
Dooley, B. D. (2021). Establishing a profession through boundary drawing: Defining criminology’s autonomy vis-à-vis six competing disciplines. American Journal of Criminal Justice, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-021-09611-2.Google Scholar
DuRant, R. H., Kahn, J., Beckford, P. H., & Woods, E. R. (1997). The association of weapon carrying and fighting on school property and other health risk and problem behaviors among high school students. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 151(4), 360–6.Google Scholar
DuRant, R. H., Krowchuk, D. P., Kreiter, S., Sinal, S. H., & Woods, C. R. (1999). Weapon carrying on school property among middle school students. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 153(1), 21–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Duru, E., & Balkis, M. (2018). Exposure to school violence at school and mental health of victimized adolescents: The mediation role of social support. Child Abuse & Neglect, 76, 342–52.Google Scholar
Dymnicki, A. B., Weissberg, R. P., & Henry, D. B. (2011). Understanding how programs work to prevent overt aggressive behaviors: A meta-analysis of mediators of elementary school-based programs. Journal of School Violence, 10(4), 315–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Egan, S. K., & Perry, D. G. (1998). Does low self-regard invite victimization? Developmental Psychology, 34(2), 299–309.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eisenberg, M. E., McMorris, B. J., Gower, A. L., & Chatterjee, D. (2016). Bullying victimization and emotional distress: Is there strength in numbers for vulnerable youth? Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 86, 13–19.Google Scholar
Englund, M. M., Levy, A. K., Hyson, D. M., & Sroufe, L. A. (2000). Adolescent social competence: Effectiveness in a group setting. Child Development, 71(4), 1049–60.Google Scholar
Espelage, D. L. (2014). Ecological theory: Preventing youth bullying, aggression, and victimization. Theory into Practice, 53(4), 257–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Espelage, D. L., Low, S. K., & Jimerson, S. R. (2014). Understanding school climate, aggression, peer victimization, and bully perpetration: Contemporary science, practice, and policy. School Psychology Quarterly, 29(3), 233–7.Google Scholar
Espelage, D. L., & Swearer, S. M. (2004). Bullying in American schools: A social-ecological perspective on prevention and intervention. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Estévez, E., Murgui, S., & Musitu, G. (2009). Psychological adjustment in bullies and victims of school violence. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 24(4), 473–83.Google Scholar
Faris, R., & Felmlee, D. (2011). Status struggles: Network centrality and gender segregation in same- and cross-gender aggression. American Sociological Review, 76(1), 48–73.Google Scholar
Faris, R., & Felmlee, D. (2014). Casualties of social combat: School networks of peer victimization and their consequences. American Sociological Review, 79(2), 228–57.Google Scholar
Faris, R., Felmlee, D., & McMillan, C. (2020). With friends like these: Aggression from amity and equivalence. American Journal of Sociology, 126(3), 673–713.Google Scholar
Farrington, D. P. (1993). Understanding and preventing bullying. Crime and Justice, 17, 381–458.Google Scholar
Farrington, D. P., Kazemian, L., & Piquero, A. R. (eds.). (2018). The Oxford handbook of developmental and life-course criminology. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Feldman, A. F., & Matjasko, J. L. (2005). The role of school-based extracurricular activities in adolescent development: A comprehensive review and future directions. Review of Educational Research, 75(2), 159–210.Google Scholar
Felson, M., & Boba, R. (2010). Crime and everyday life (fourth ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Felson, M., & Cohen, L. E. (1980). Human ecology and crime: A routine activity approach. Human Ecology, 8(4), 389–406.Google Scholar
Felson, R. B., Berg, M. T., Rogers, E. M., & Krajewski, A. (2018). Disputatiousness and the offender–victim overlap. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 55(3), 351–89.Google Scholar
Felson, R. B., Savolainen, J., Berg, M. T., & Ellonen, N. (2013). Does spending time in public settings contribute to the adolescent risk of violent victimization? Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 29(2), 273–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Finkelhor, D. (2008). Childhood victimization: Violence, crime, and abuse in the lives of young people. New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Finkelhor, D., & Asdigian, N. L. (1996). Risk factors for youth victimization: Beyond a lifestyles/routine activities theory approach. Violence and Victims, 11(1), 3–19.Google Scholar
Finkelhor, D., Vanderminden, J., Turner, H., Shattuck, A., & Hamby, S. (2016). At-school victimization and violence exposure assessed in a national household survey of children and youth. Journal of School Violence, 15(1), 67–90.Google Scholar
Fisher, B. W., Nation, M., Nixon, C. T., & McIlroy, S. (2017). Students’ perceptions of safety at school after Sandy Hook. Journal of School Violence, 16(4), 349–60.Google Scholar
Fite, P. J., Cooley, J. L., & Williford, A. (2020). Components of evidence-based interventions for bullying and peer victimization. In Steele, R. G. & Roberts, M. C. (eds.), Handbook of evidence-based therapies for children and adolescents – Issues in clinical child psychology (pp. 219–234). New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Fite, P. J., Cooley, J. L., Williford, A., Frazer, A., & DiPierro, M. (2014). Parental involvement as a moderator of the association between peer victimization and academic performance. Children and Youth Services Review, 44, 25–32.Google Scholar
Forrest, K. Y. Z., Zychowski, A. K., Stuhldreher, W. L., & Ryan, W. J. (2000). Weapon-carrying in school: Prevalence and association with other violent behaviors. American Journal of Health Studies, 16(3), 133–40.Google Scholar
Forrest, W., Hay, C., Widdowson, A. O., & Rocque, M. (2019). Development of impulsivity and risk-seeking: Implications for the dimensionality and stability of self-control. Criminology, 57(3), 5112–543.Google Scholar
Forsberg, C., & Thornberg, R. (2016). The social ordering of belonging: Children’s perspectives on bullying. International Journal of Educational Research, 78, 13–23.Google Scholar
Forster, M., Gower, A. L., McMorris, B. J., & Borowsky, I. W. (2020). Adverse childhood experiences and school-based victimization and perpetration. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 35(3–4), 662–81.Google Scholar
Fournier, M. A. (2009). Adolescent hierarchy formation and the social competition theory of depression. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 28(9), 1144–72.Google Scholar
Frey, K. S., Hirschstein, M. K., Snell, J. L., Edstrom, L. V. S., MacKenzie, E. P., & Broderick, C. J. (2005). Reducing playground bullying and supporting beliefs: An experimental trial of the steps to respect program. Developmental Psychology, 41(3), 479–90.Google Scholar
Fridel, E. E. (2021). The contextual correlates of school shootings. Justice Quarterly, 38(4), 596–625.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gaffney, H., Farrington, D. P., & Ttofi, M. M. (2019). Examining the effectiveness of school-bullying intervention programs globally: A meta-analysis. International Journal of Bullying Prevention, 1(1), 14–31.Google Scholar
Gage, N. A., Prykanowski, D. A., & Larson, A. (2014). School climate and bullying victimization: A latent class growth model analysis. School Psychology Quarterly, 29(3), 256–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gaias, L. M., Johnson, S. L., White, R. M., Pettigrew, J., & Dumka, L. (2018). Understanding school–neighborhood mesosystemic effects on adolescent development. Adolescent Research Review, 3(3), 301–19.Google Scholar
Garandeau, C. F., Lee, I. A., & Salmivalli, C. (2014). Inequality matters: Classroom status hierarchy and adolescents’ bullying. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 43(7), 1123–33.Google Scholar
Garbacz, S. A., Watkins, N. D., Diaz, Y., Barnabas, E. R. Jr, Schwartz, B., & Eiraldi, R. (2017). Using conjoint behavioral consultation to implement evidence-based practices for students in low-income urban schools. Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth, 61(3), 198–210.Google Scholar
Garofalo, C., & Velotti, P. (2017). Negative emotionality and aggression in violent offenders: The moderating role of emotion dysregulation. Journal of Criminal Justice, 51, 9–16.Google Scholar
Gendreau, P., Little, T., & Goggin, C. (1996). A meta‐analysis of the predictors of adult offender recidivism: What works! Criminology, 34(4), 575–608.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Georgiou, S. N. (2009). Personal and maternal parameters of peer violence at school. Journal of School Violence, 8(2), 100–19.Google Scholar
Gini, G., Pozzoli, T., & Hymel, S. (2014). Moral disengagement among children and youth: A meta‐analytic review of links to aggressive behavior. Aggressive Behavior, 40(1), 56–68.Google Scholar
Gleser, L. J., & Olkin, I. (1994). Stochastically dependent effect sizes. In Cooper, H. & Hedges, L. V. (eds.), The handbook of research synthesis and meta-analysis (pp. 339–55). New York: Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
Goldstein, S. E., Young, A., & Boyd, C. (2008). Relational aggression at school: Associations with school safety and social climate. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 37(6), 641–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gottfredson, D. C. (2001). Schools and delinquency. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Gottfredson, D. C. (2017). Prevention research in schools: Past, present, and future. Vollmer Award Address. Criminology & Public Policy, 16(1), 7–27.Google Scholar
Gottfredson, D. C., & DiPietro, S. M. (2011). School size, social capital, and student victimization. Sociology of Education, 84(1), 69–89.Google Scholar
Gottfredson, G. D., Gottfredson, D. C., Czeh, E. R., Cantor, D., Crosse, S., & Hantman, I. (2000). National study of delinquency prevention in schools. Ellicott City, MD: Gottfredson Associates. Retrieved from www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/194116.pdf.Google Scholar
Gottfredson, G. D., Gottfredson, D. C., Payne, A. A., & Gottfredson, N. C. (2005). School climate predictors of school disorder: Results from a national study of delinquency prevention in schools. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 42(4), 412–44.Google Scholar
Gottfredson, M. R. (1981). On the etiology of criminal victimization. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 72(2), 714–26.Google Scholar
Gottfredson, M. R., & Hirschi, T. (1990). A general theory of crime. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Hanish, L. D., & Guerra, N. G. (2002). A longitudinal analysis of patterns of adjustment following peer victimization. Development and Psychopathology, 14(1), 69–89.Google Scholar
Hatchel, T., Ingram, K. M., Mintz, S., et al. (2019). Predictors of suicidal ideation and attempts among LGBTQ adolescents: The roles of help-seeking beliefs, peer victimization, depressive symptoms, and drug use. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 28(9), 2443–55.Google Scholar
Hatzenbuehler, M. L., Flores, J. E., Cavanaugh, J. E., Onwuachi-Willig, A., & Ramirez, M. R. (2017). Anti-bullying policies and disparities in bullying: A state-level analysis. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 53(2), 184–91.Google Scholar
Hawkins, J. D., Kosterman, R., Catalano, R. F., Hill, K. G., & Abbott, R. D. (2005). Promoting positive adult functioning through social development intervention in childhood: Long-term effects from the Seattle Social Development Project. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 159(1), 25–31.Google Scholar
Hawkins, J. D., Smith, B. H., Hill, K. G., Kosterman, R., Catalano, R. F., & Abbott, R. D. (2007). Promoting social development and preventing health and behavior problems during the elementary grades: Results from the Seattle Social Development Project. Victims & Offenders, 2(2), 161–81.Google Scholar
Hawley, P. H. (1999). The ontogenesis of social dominance: A strategy-based evolutionary perspective. Developmental Review, 19(1), 97–132.Google Scholar
Hedges, L. V., & Olkin, I. (1985). Statistical methods for meta-analysis. Orlando, FL: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Hektner, J. M., August, G. J., & Realmuto, G. M. (2000). Patterns and temporal changes in peer affiliation among aggressive and nonaggressive children participating in a summer school program. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 29(4), 603–14.Google Scholar
Herrenkohl, T. I., Lee, J., & Hawkins, J. D. (2012). Risk versus direct protective factors and youth violence: Seattle Social Development Project. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 43(2), S41–56.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Herrenkohl, T. I., Maguin, E., Hill, K. G., Hawkins, J. D., Abbott, R. D., & Catalano, R. F. (2000). Developmental risk factors for youth violence. Journal of Adolescent Health, 26(3), 176–86.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Higgins, G. E., Piquero, N. L., & Piquero, A. R. (2011). General strain theory, peer rejection, and delinquency/crime. Youth & Society, 43(4), 1272–97.Google Scholar
Hill, K. G., Howell, J. C., Hawkins, J. D., & Battin-Pearson, S. R. (1999). Childhood risk factors for adolescent gang membership: Results from the Seattle Social Development Project. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 36(3), 300–22.Google Scholar
Hindelang, M. J., Gottfredson, M. R., & Garofalo, J. (1978). Victims of personal crime: An empirical foundation for a theory of personal victimization. Cambridge, MA: Ballinger.Google Scholar
Hinduja, S., & Patchin, J. W. (2019). Connecting adolescent suicide to the severity of bullying and cyberbullying. Journal of School Violence, 18(3), 333–46.Google Scholar
Hirschfield, P. J. (2008). Preparing for prison? The criminalization of school discipline in the USA. Theoretical Criminology, 12(1), 79–101.Google Scholar
Hirschfield, P. J. (2018). Schools and crime. Annual Review of Criminology, 1, 149–69.Google Scholar
Hirschi, T., & Gottfredson, M. R. (eds.). (1994). The generality of deviance. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.Google Scholar
Hoeve, M., Stams, G. J. J., van der Put, C. E., Dubas, J. S., Van der Laan, P. H., & Gerris, J. R. (2012). A meta-analysis of attachment to parents and delinquency. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 40(5), 771–85.Google Scholar
Hollis, M. E., Felson, M., & Welsh, B. C. (2013). The capable guardian in routine activities theory: A theoretical and conceptual reappraisal. Crime Prevention and Community Safety, 15(1), 65–79.Google Scholar
Homer, E. M., & Fisher, B. W. (2020). Police in schools and student arrest rates across the United States: Examining differences by race, ethnicity, and gender. Journal of School Violence, 19(2), 192–204.Google Scholar
Hoover, J. H., Oliver, R., & Hazler, R. J. (1992). Bullying: Perceptions of adolescent victims in the Midwestern USA. School Psychology International, 13(1), 5–16.Google Scholar
Hox, J. J. (2010). Multilevel analysis: Techniques and applications (second ed.). New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Huitsing, G., & Monks, C. P. (2018). Who victimizes whom and who defends whom? A multivariate social network analysis of victimization, aggression, and defending in early childhood. Aggressive Behavior, 44(4), 394–405.Google Scholar
Huitsing, G., & Veenstra, R. (2012). Bullying in classrooms: Participant roles from a social network perspective. Aggressive Behavior, 38(6), 494–509.Google Scholar
Hymel, S., & Swearer, S. M. (2015). Four decades of research on school bullying: An introduction. American Psychologist, 70(4), 293–99.Google Scholar
Jacobsen, W. C. (2020). School punishment and interpersonal exclusion: Rejection, withdrawal, and separation from friends. Criminology, 58(1), 35–69.Google Scholar
Jambon, M., & Smetana, J. G. (2018). Callous-unemotional traits moderate the association between children’s early moral understanding and aggression: A short-term longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 54(5), 903–95.Google Scholar
James, K., Bunch, J., & Clay-Warner, J. (2015). Perceived injustice and school violence: An application of general strain theory. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 13(2), 169–89.Google Scholar
Jeffrey, C. R. (1978). Criminology as an interdisciplinary behavioral science. Criminology, 16(2), 149–69.Google Scholar
Jennings, W. G., Khey, D. N., Maskaly, J., & Donner, C. M. (2011). Evaluating the relationship between law enforcement and school security measures and violent crime in schools. Journal of Police Crisis Negotiations, 11(2), 109–24.Google Scholar
Jiménez-Barbero, J. A., Jiménez-Loaisa, A., González-Cutre, D., Beltrán-Carrillo, V. J., Llor-Zaragoza, L., & Ruiz-Hernández, J. A. (2020). Physical education and school bullying: A systematic review. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 25(1), 79–100.Google Scholar
Jiménez-Barbero, J. A., Ruiz-Hernández, J. A., Llor-Zaragoza, L., Pérez-García, M., & Llor-Esteban, B. (2016). Effectiveness of anti-bullying school programs: A meta-analysis. Children and Youth Services Review, 61, 165–75.Google Scholar
Johnson, S. L., Bottiani, J., Waasdorp, T. E., & Bradshaw, C. P. (2018). Surveillance or safekeeping? How school security officer and camera presence influence students’ perceptions of safety, equity, and support. Journal of Adolescent Health, 63(6), 732–8.Google Scholar
Jonson, C. L. (2017). Preventing school shootings: The effectiveness of safety measures. Victims & Offenders, 12(6), 956–73.Google Scholar
Jonson, C. L., Moon, M. M., & Hendry, J. A. (2020). One size does not fit all: Traditional lockdown versus multioption responses to school shootings. Journal of School Violence, 19(2), 154–66.Google Scholar
Juvonen, J., & Graham, S. (2001). Peer harassment in school: The plight of the vulnerable and victimized. New York: GuilfordGoogle Scholar
Juvonen, J., & Graham, S. (2014). Bullying in schools: The power of bullies and the plight of victims. Annual Review of Psychology, 65, 159–85.Google Scholar
Juvonen, J., & Gross, E. F. (2008). Extending the school grounds? Bullying experiences in cyberspace. Journal of School Health, 78(9), 496–505.Google Scholar
Juvonen, J., Nishina, A., & Graham, S. (2006). Ethnic diversity and perceptions of safety in urban middle schools. Psychological Science, 17(5), 393–400.Google Scholar
Juvonen, J., Schacter, H. L., Sainio, M., & Salmivalli, C. (2016). Can a school-wide bullying prevention program improve the plight of victims? Evidence for risk × intervention effects. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 84(4), 334–44.Google Scholar
Kelly, M. B., & McBride, A. B. (2020). Safe passage: A guide for addressing school violence. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar
Kempe, C. H., Silverman, F. N., Steele, B. F., Droegemueller, W., & Silver, H. K. (1962). The battered-child syndrome. Journal of the American Medical Association, 181(1), 17–24.Google Scholar
Khanhkham, A., Williams, R. D., Housman, J. M., & Odum, M. (2020). Sexual dating violence, school-based violence, and risky behaviors among U.S. high school students. Journal of Community Health, 45, 932–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kiernan Coon, J. (2021). Situational crime prevention strategies in schools: An assessment of principals’ perceptions of the effectiveness of security approaches in public high schools. Security Journal, 34, 635–57.Google Scholar
Killer, B., Bussey, K., Hawes, D. J., & Hunt, C. (2019). A meta‐analysis of the relationship between moral disengagement and bullying roles in youth. Aggressive Behavior, 45(4), 450–62.Google Scholar
Kim, B. E., Gilman, A. B., Hill, K. G., & Hawkins, J. D. (2016). Examining protective factors against violence among high-risk youth: Findings from the Seattle Social Development Project. Journal of Criminal Justice, 45, 19–25.Google Scholar
Kokkinos, C. M., & Kipritsi, E. (2012). The relationship between bullying, victimization, trait emotional intelligence, self-efficacy and empathy among preadolescents. Social Psychology of Education, 15(1), 41–58.Google Scholar
Kornienko, O., Dishion, T. J., & Ha, T. (2018). Peer network dynamics and the amplification of antisocial to violent behavior among young adolescents in public middle schools. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 26(1), 21–30.Google Scholar
Kornienko, O., Ha, T., & Dishion, T. J. (2020). Dynamic pathways between rejection and antisocial behavior in peer networks: Update and test of confluence model. Development and Psychopathology, 32(1), 175–88.Google Scholar
Krivo, L. J., & Peterson, R. D. (1996). Extremely disadvantaged neighborhoods and urban crime. Social Forces, 75(2), 619–48.Google Scholar
Kulig, T. C., Cullen, F. T., Wilcox, P., & Chouhy, C. (2019). Personality and adolescent school-based victimization: Do the big five matter? Journal of School Violence, 18(2), 176–99.Google Scholar
Kulig, T. C., Pratt, T. C., Cullen, F. T., Chouhy, C., & Unnever, J. D. (2017). Explaining bullying victimization: Assessing the generality of the low self-control/risky lifestyle model. Victims & Offenders, 12(6), 891–912.Google Scholar
Kupchik, A. (2016). The real school safety problem: The long-term consequences of harsh school punishment. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Kupchik, A., & Farina, K. A. (2016). Imitating authority: Students’ perceptions of school punishment and security, and bullying victimization. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 14(2), 147–63.Google Scholar
Kusché, C. A. (2020). The PATHS curriculum: Thirty-five years and counting. In Nagle, D. W., Erdley, C. A., & Schwartz-Mette, R. A (eds.), Social skills across the life span (pp. 201–19). Cambridge, MA: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Kusché, C. A., & Greenberg, M. T. (1994). The PATHS curriculum. Seattle: Developmental Research and Programs.Google Scholar
Ladd, G. W., Ettekal, I., & Kochenderfer-Ladd, B. (2019). Longitudinal changes in victimized youth’s social anxiety and solitary behavior. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 47(7), 1211–23.Google Scholar
LaFontana, K. M., & Cillessen, A. H. (2010). Developmental changes in the priority of perceived status in childhood and adolescence. Social Development, 19(1), 130–47.Google Scholar
Lantos, J. D., & Halpern, J. (2015). Bullying, social hierarchies, poverty, and health outcomes. Pediatrics, 135(Supplement 2), S21–3.Google Scholar
Laub, J. H. (2004). The life course of criminology in the United States: The American Society of Criminology 2003 Presidential Address. Criminology, 42(1), 1–26.Google Scholar
Lauritsen, J. L., & Laub, J. H. (2007). Understanding the link between victimization and offending: New reflections on an old idea. Crime Prevention Studies, 22, 55–75.Google Scholar
Lee, D. R., & Cohen, J. W. (2008). Examining strain in a school context. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 6(2), 115–35.Google Scholar
Lee, H., Pickett, J. T., Burton, A. L., Cullen, F. T., Jonson, C. L., & Burton, V. S. (2020). Attributions as anchors: How the public explains school shootings and why it matters. Justice Quarterly, https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2020.1769710.Google Scholar
Lee, S., Kim, C. J., & Kim, D. H. (2015). A meta-analysis of the effect of school-based anti-bullying programs. Journal of Child Health Care, 19(2), 136–53.Google Scholar
Legewie, J., & Fagan, J. (2019). Aggressive policing and the educational performance of minority youth. American Sociological Review, 84(2), 220–47.Google Scholar
Lesser, G. S. (1959). The relationships between various forms of aggression and popularity among lower-class children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 50(1), 20–5.Google Scholar
Limber, S. P. (2011). Development, evaluation, and future directions of the Olweus Bullying Prevention Program. Journal of School Violence, 10(1), 71–87.Google Scholar
Lipsey, M. W., & Derzon, J. H. (1998). Predictors of violent or serious delinquency in adolescence and early adulthood: A synthesis of longitudinal research. In Loeber, R. & Farrington, D. P. (eds.), Serious & violent juvenile offenders: Risk factors and successful interventions (pp. 86–105). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Lipsey, M. W., & Wilson, D. B. (2001). Practical meta-analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Lochman, J. E., & Wells, K. C. (2002). The Coping Power Program at the middle school transition: Universal and indicated prevention effects. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 16(4S), S40–54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Loeber, R., & Le Blanc, M. (1990). Toward a developmental criminology. Crime and Justice, 12, 375–473.Google Scholar
Lonczak, H. S., Abbott, R. D., Hawkins, J. D., Kosterman, R., & Catalano, R. F. (2002). Effects of the Seattle Social Development Project on sexual behavior, pregnancy, birth, and sexually transmitted disease outcomes by age 21 years. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 156(5), 438–47.Google Scholar
Low, S., Frey, K. S., & Brockman, C. J. (2010). Gossip on the playground: Changes associated with universal intervention, retaliation beliefs, and supportive friends. School Psychology Review, 39(4), 536–51.Google Scholar
Low, S., van Ryzin, M. J., Brown, E. C., Smith, B. H., & Haggerty, K. P. (2014). Engagement matters: Lessons from assessing classroom implementation of steps to respect: A bullying prevention program over a one-year period. Prevention Science, 15(2), 165–76.Google Scholar
Ma, T. L., Meter, D. J., Chen, W. T., & Lee, Y. (2019). Defending behavior of peer victimization in school and cyber context during childhood and adolescence: A meta-analytic review of individual and peer-relational characteristics. Psychological Bulletin, 145(9), 891.Google Scholar
Malette, N. (2017). Forms of fighting: A micro-social analysis of bullying and in-school violence. Canadian Journal of Education, 40(1), 1–29.Google Scholar
Maynard, B. R., Vaughn, M. G., Salas-Wright, C. P., & Vaughn, S. (2016). Bullying victimization among school-aged immigrant youth in the United States. Journal of Adolescent Health, 58(3), 337–44.Google Scholar
Melde, C., & Esbensen, F. A. (2009). The victim–offender overlap and fear of in-school victimization: A longitudinal examination of risk assessment models. Crime & Delinquency, 55(4), 499–525.Google Scholar
Menesini, E., & Salmivalli, C. (2017). Bullying in schools: The state of knowledge and effective interventions. Psychology, Health & Medicine, 22(Supplement 1), 240–53.Google Scholar
Merrell, K. W., Gueldner, B. A., Ross, S. W., & Isava, D. M. (2008). How effective are school bullying intervention programs? A meta-analysis of intervention research. School Psychology Quarterly, 23(1), 26–42.Google Scholar
Merrin, G. J., de la Haye, K., Espelage, D. L., et al. (2018). The co-evolution of bullying perpetration, homophobic teasing, and a school friendship network. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 47(3), 601–18.Google Scholar
Merton, R. K. (1938). Social structure and anomie. American Sociological Review, 3(5), 672–82.Google Scholar
Metzler, M., Merrick, M. T., Klevens, J., Ports, K. A., & Ford, D. C. (2017). Adverse childhood experiences and life opportunities: Shifting the narrative. Children and Youth Services Review, 72, 141–9.Google Scholar
Meyer-Adams, N., & Conner, B. T. (2008). School violence: Bullying behaviors and the psychosocial school environment in middle schools. Children & Schools, 30(4), 211–21.Google Scholar
Moeyaert, M., Ugille, M., Natasha Beretvas, S., Ferron, J., Bunuan, R., & van den Noortgate, W. (2017). Methods for dealing with multiple outcomes in meta-analysis: A comparison between averaging effect sizes, robust variance estimation and multilevel meta-analysis. International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 20(6), 559–72.Google Scholar
Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., Altman, D. G., & Group, Prisma. (2009). Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: The PRISMA statement. PLoS Medicine, 6(7), e1000097.Google Scholar
Moon, B., & Alarid, L. F. (2015). School bullying, low self-control, and opportunity. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 30(5), 839–56.Google Scholar
Mouttapa, M., Valente, T., Gallaher, P., Rohrbach, L. A., & Unger, J. B. (2004). Social network predictors of bullying and victimization. Adolescence, 39(154), 315–35.Google Scholar
Mowen, T., & Brent, J. (2016). School discipline as a turning point: The cumulative effect of suspension on arrest. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 53(5), 628–53.Google Scholar
Mowen, T. J., & Freng, A. (2019). Is more necessarily better? School security and perceptions of safety among students and parents in the United States. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 44(3), 376–94.Google Scholar
Mulvey, K. L., Boswell, C., & Zheng, J. (2017). Causes and consequences of social exclusion and peer rejection among children and adolescents. Report on Emotional & Behavioral Disorders in Youth, 17(3), 71–5.Google Scholar
Myers, W., Turanovic, J. J., Lloyd, K. M., & Pratt, T. C. (2020). The victimization of LGBTQ students at school: A meta-analysis. Journal of School Violence, 19(4), 421–32.Google Scholar
Na, C., & Gottfredson, D. C. (2013). Police officers in schools: Effects on school crime and the processing of offending behaviors. Justice Quarterly, 30(4), 619–50.Google Scholar
Nail, P. R., Simon, J. B., Bihm, E. M., & Beasley, W. H. (2016). Defensive egotism and bullying: Gender differences yield qualified support for the compensation model of aggression. Journal of School Violence, 15(1), 22–47.Google Scholar
National School Climate Council. (2007). The school climate challenge: Narrowing the gap between school climate research and school climate policy, practice guide-lines and teacher education policy. Retrieved from www.schoolclimate.org/climate/advocacy.php.Google Scholar
Niemi, R. G. (1986). Series editor’s introduction. In Wolf, F. M. (ed.), Meta-analysis: Quantitative methods for research synthesis (pp. 5–6). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Nocentini, A., & Menesini, E. (2016). KiVa anti-bullying program in Italy: Evidence of effectiveness in a randomized control trial. Prevention Science, 17(8), 1012–23.Google Scholar
Olweus, D. (1977). Aggression and peer acceptance in adolescent boys: Two short-term longitudinal studies. Child Development, 48(4), 1301–13.Google Scholar
Olweus, D. (1978). Aggression in the schools: Bullies and whipping boys. Washington, DC: Hemisphere.Google Scholar
Olweus, D. (2013). School bullying: Development and some important challenges. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 9, 751–80.Google Scholar
Olweus, D., & Limber, S. P. (2010). Bullying in school: Evaluation and dissemination of the Olweus Bullying Prevention Program. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 80(1), 124–34.Google Scholar
Osgood, D. W., Anderson, A. L., & Shaffer, J. N. (2005). Unstructured leisure in the after-school hours. In Mahoney, J. L., Larson, R. W., & Eccles, J. S. (eds.), Organized activities as contexts of development: Extracurricular activities, after-school and community programs (pp. 45–64). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Ousey, G. C., & Kubrin, C. E. (2018). Immigration and crime: Assessing a contentious issue. Annual Review of Criminology, 1, 63–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ousey, G. C., & Wilcox, P. (2005). Subcultural values and violent delinquency: A multilevel analysis in middle schools. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 3(1), 3–22.Google Scholar
Ousey, G. C., Wilcox, P., & Brummel, S. (2008). Déjà vu all over again: Investigating temporal continuity of adolescent victimization. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 24(3), 307–35.Google Scholar
Park, H. S. (2008). Centering in hierarchical linear modeling. Communication Methods and Measures, 2(4), 227–59.Google Scholar
Paternoster, R. (1987). The deterrent effect of the perceived certainty and severity of punishment: A review of the evidence and issues. Justice Quarterly, 4(2), 173–217.Google Scholar
Patterson, G. R. (1986). Performance models for antisocial boys. American Psychologist, 41(4), 432–44.Google Scholar
Peguero, A. A. (2008a). Bullying victimization and extracurricular activity. Journal of School Violence, 7(3), 71–85.Google Scholar
Peguero, A. A. (2008b). Is immigrant status relevant in school violence research? An analysis with Latino students. Journal of School Health, 78(7), 397–404.Google Scholar
Peguero, A. A. (2013). An adolescent victimization immigrant paradox? School-based routines, lifestyles, and victimization across immigration generations. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42(11), 1759–73.Google Scholar
Peguero, A. A., & Jiang, X. (2014). Social control across immigrant generations: Adolescent violence at school and examining the immigrant paradox. Journal of Criminal Justice, 42(3), 276–87.Google Scholar
Peguero, A. A., & Jiang, X. (2016). Backlash for breaking racial and ethnic breaking stereotypes: Adolescent school victimization across contexts. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 31(6), 1047–73.Google Scholar
Pellegrini, A. D., & Long, J. D. (2002). A longitudinal study of bullying, dominance, and victimization during the transition from primary school through secondary school. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 20(2), 259–80.Google Scholar
Polanin, J. R., Espelage, D. L., Grotpeter, J. K., et al. (2021). A meta-analysis of longitudinal partial correlations between school violence and mental health, school performance, and criminal or delinquent acts. Psychological Bulletin, 147(2), 115–33.Google Scholar
Popp, A. M., & Peguero, A. A. (2011). Routine activities and victimization at school: The significance of gender. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 26(12), 2413–36.Google Scholar
Postigo, S., González, R., Mateu, C., & Montoya, I. (2012). Predicting bullying: Maladjustment, social skills and popularity. Educational Psychology, 32(5), 627–39.Google Scholar
Pouwels, J. L., Lansu, T. A., & Cillessen, A. H. (2018). A developmental perspective on popularity and the group process of bullying. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 43, 64–70.Google Scholar
Pratt, T. C. (2010). Meta-analysis in criminal justice and criminology: What it is, when it’s useful, and what to watch out for. Journal of Criminal Justice Education, 21, 152–68.Google Scholar
Pratt, T. C., & Cullen, F. T. (2000). The empirical status of Gottfredson and Hirschi’s general theory of crime: A meta‐analysis. Criminology, 38(3), 931–64.Google Scholar
Pratt, T. C., & Cullen, F. T. (2005). Assessing macro-level predictors and theories of crime: A meta-analysis. Crime and Justice, 32, 373–450.Google Scholar
Pratt, T. C., Cullen, F. T., Blevins, K. R., Daigle, L. E., & Madensen, T. D. (2006). The empirical status of deterrence theory: A meta-analysis. In Cullen, F. T., Wright, J. P., & Blevins, K. R. (eds.), Taking stock: The status of criminological theory – Advances in criminological theory, Vol. 15 (pp. 367–95). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.Google Scholar
Pratt, T. C., Cullen, F. T., Sellers, C. S., et al. (2010). The empirical status of social learning theory: A meta-analysis. Justice Quarterly, 27(6), 765–802.Google Scholar
Pratt, T. C., & Turanovic, J. J. (2016). Lifestyle and routine activity theories revisited: The importance of “risk” to the study of victimization. Victims & Offenders, 11(3), 335–54.Google Scholar
Pratt, T. C., & Turanovic, J. J. (2018). Celerity and deterrence. In Nagin, D. S., Cullen, F. T., & Jonson, C. L. (eds.), Deterrence, choice, and crime: Contemporary perspectives – Advances in criminological theory, Vol. 23 (pp. 187–210). New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Pratt, T. C., Turanovic, J. J., Fox, K. A., & Wright, K. A. (2014). Self-control and victimization: A meta-analysis. Criminology, 52(1), 87–116.Google Scholar
Proctor, E. K., Landsverk, J., Aarons, G., Chambers, D., Glisson, C., & Mittman, B. (2009). Implementation research in mental health services: An emerging science with conceptual, methodological, and training challenges. Administration and Policy in Mental Health, 36(1), 24–34.Google Scholar
Pyrooz, D. C., Turanovic, J. J., Decker, S. H., & Wu, J. (2016). Taking stock of the relationship between gang membership and offending: A meta-analysis. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 43(3), 365–97.Google Scholar
Rambaran, J. A., Dijkstra, J. K., & Veenstra, R. (2020). Bullying as a group process in childhood: A longitudinal social network analysis. Child Development, 91(4), 1336–52.Google Scholar
Randa, R., Reyns, B. W., & Nobles, M. R. (2019). Measuring the effects of limited and persistent school bullying victimization: Repeat victimization, fear, and adaptive behaviors. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 34(2), 392–415.Google Scholar
Randa, R., & Wilcox, P. (2012). Avoidance at school: Further specifying the influence of disorder, victimization, and fear. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 10(2), 190–204.Google Scholar
Raudenbush, S. W., & Bryk, A. (2002). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data analysis methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Reid, J. A., & Sullivan, C. J. (2009). A latent class typology of juvenile victims and exploration of risk factors and outcomes of victimization. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 36(10), 1001–24.Google Scholar
Riese, A., Gjelsvik, A., & Ranney, M. L. (2015). Extracurricular activities and bullying perpetration: Results from a nationally representative sample. Journal of School Health, 85(8), 544–51.Google Scholar
Rinehart, S. J., & Espelage, D. L. (2016). A multilevel analysis of school climate, homophobic name-calling, and sexual harassment victimization/perpetration among middle school youth. Psychology of Violence, 6(2), 213–22.Google Scholar
Ringwalt, C., Hanley, S., Ennett, S. T., et al. (2011). The effects of No Child Left Behind on the prevalence of evidence‐based drug prevention curricula in the nation’s middle schools. Journal of School Health, 81(5), 265–72.Google Scholar
Rodkin, P. C., Espelage, D. L., & Hanish, L. D. (2015). A relational framework for understanding bullying: Developmental antecedents and outcomes. American Psychologist, 70(4), 311–21.Google Scholar
Rodkin, P. C., Farmer, T. W., Pearl, R., & Acker, R. V. (2006). They’re cool: Social status and peer group supports for aggressive boys and girls. Social Development, 15(2), 175–204.Google Scholar
Roos, L. L., Wall-Wieler, E., & Lee, J. B. (2019). Poverty and early childhood outcomes. Pediatrics, 143(6), e20183426.Google Scholar
Rose, I. (2018). School violence: Studies in alienation, revenge and redemption. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Rose-Krasnor, L. (1997). The nature of social competence: A theoretical review. Social Development, 6(1), 111–35.Google Scholar
Rosenthal, R., & Rubin, D. B. (1986). Meta-analytic procedures for combining studies with multiple effect sizes. Psychological Bulletin, 99(3), 400–6.Google Scholar
Saarento, S., Kärnä, A., Hodges, E. V., & Salmivalli, C. (2013). Student-, classroom-, and school-level risk factors for victimization. Journal of School Psychology, 51(3), 421–34.Google Scholar
Sailor, W., Skrtic, T. M., Cohn, M., & Olmstead, C. (2021). Preparing teacher educators for statewide scale-up of Multi-Tiered System of Support (MTSS). Teacher Education and Special Education, 44(1), 24–41.Google Scholar
Salmivalli, C. (2010). Bullying and the peer group: A review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 15, 112–20.Google Scholar
Salmivalli, C., Kärnä, A., & Poskiparta, E. (2011). Counteracting bullying in Finland: The KiVa program and its effects on different forms of being bullied. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 35(5), 405–11.Google Scholar
Sampson, R. J. (2012). Great American city: Chicago and the enduring neighborhood effect. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Savage, J. (2014). The association between attachment, parental bonds and physically aggressive and violent behavior: A comprehensive review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 19(2), 164–78.Google Scholar
Scheckner, S., Rollin, S. A., Kaiser-Ulrey, C., & Wagner, R. (2002). School violence in children and adolescents: A meta-analysis of the effectiveness of current interventions. Journal of School Violence, 1(2), 5–32.Google Scholar
Schildkraut, J., & Grogan, K. (2019). Are metal detectors effective at making schools safer? San Francisco: WestEd.Google Scholar
Schildkraut, J., & Nickerson, A. B. (2020). Ready to respond: Effects of lockdown drills and training on school emergency preparedness. Victims & Offenders, 15(5), 619–38.Google Scholar
Schott, R. M., & Søndergaard, D. M. (eds.). (2014). School bullying: New theories in context. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Schreck, C. J. (1999). Criminal victimization and low self-control: An extension and test of a general theory of crime. Justice Quarterly, 16(3), 633–54.Google Scholar
Schreck, C. J., Miller, J. M., & Gibson, C. L. (2003). Trouble in the school yard: A study of the risk factors of victimization at school. Crime & Delinquency, 49(3), 460–84.Google Scholar
Schreck, C. J., Wright, R. A., & Miller, J. M. (2002). A study of individual and situational antecedents of violent victimization. Justice Quarterly, 19(1), 159–80.Google Scholar
Sharkey, P. (2010). The acute effect of local homicides on children’s cognitive performance. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107(26), 11733–8.Google Scholar
Sharkey, P. (2018). The long reach of violence: A broader perspective on data, theory, and evidence on the prevalence and consequences of exposure to violence. Annual Review of Criminology, 1, 85–102.Google Scholar
Shaw, C. R., & McKay, H. D. (1942). Juvenile delinquency and urban areas. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Sidanius, J., & Pratto, F. (1999). Social dominance: An intergroup theory of social hierarchy and oppression. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Siddaway, A. P., Wood, A. M., & Hedges, L. V. (2019). How to do a systematic review: A best practice guide for conducting and reporting narrative reviews, meta-analyses, and meta-syntheses. Annual Review of Psychology, 70, 747–70.Google Scholar
Sijtsema, J. J., Lindenberg, S. M., & Veenstra, R. (2010). Do they get what they want or are they stuck with what they can get? Testing homophily against default selection for friendships of highly aggressive boys. The TRAILS study. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 38(6), 803–13.Google Scholar
Sijtsema, J. J., Veenstra, R., Lindenberg, S., & Salmivalli, C. (2009). Empirical test of bullies’ status goals: Assessing direct goals, aggression, and prestige. Aggressive Behavior, 35(1), 57–67.Google Scholar
Slaughter, V., Imuta, K., Peterson, C. C., & Henry, J. D. (2015). Meta‐analysis of theory of mind and peer popularity in the preschool and early school years. Child Development, 86(4), 1159–74.Google Scholar
Son, E., Parish, S. L., & Peterson, N. A. (2012). National prevalence of peer victimization among young children with disabilities in the United States. Children and Youth Services Review, 34(8), 1540–5.Google Scholar
Song, J., & Oh, I. (2017). Investigation of the bystander effect in school bullying: Comparison of experiential, psychological and situational factors. School Psychology International, 38(3), 319–36.Google Scholar
South, S. J., & Deane, G. D. (1993). Race and residential mobility: Individual determinants and structural constraints. Social Forces, 72(1), 147–67.Google Scholar
Spoth, R., Rohrbach, L. A., Greenberg, M., et al. (2013). Addressing core challenges for the next generation of type 2 translation research and systems: The translation science to population impact (TSci Impact) framework. Prevention Science, 14(4), 319–51.Google Scholar
Steffgen, G., Recchia, S., & Viechtbauer, W. (2013). The link between school climate and violence in school: A meta-analytic review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 18(2), 300–9.Google Scholar
Stevens, G. W., Boer, M., Titzmann, P. F., Cosma, A., & Walsh, S. D. (2020). Immigration status and bullying victimization: Associations across national and school contexts. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 66, 101075.Google Scholar
Sullivan, T. N., Farrell, A. D., & Kliewer, W. (2006). Peer victimization in early adolescence: Association between physical and relational victimization and drug use, aggression, and delinquent behaviors among urban middle school students. Development and Psychopathology, 18(1), 119–37.Google Scholar
Swartz, K., Wilcox, P., & Ousey, G. C. (2017). Culture as values or culture in action? Street codes and student violent offending. Victims & Offenders, 12(6), 868–90.Google Scholar
Swearer, S. M., & Espelage, D. L. (2011). Expanding the social-ecological framework of bullying among youth: Lessons learned from the past and directions for the future. In Espelage, D. L. & Swearer, S. M. (eds.), Bullying in North American schools (pp. 3–10). New York: RoutledgeGoogle Scholar
Swearer, S. M., & Hymel, S. (2015). Understanding the psychology of bullying: Moving toward a social-ecological diathesis–stress model. American Psychologist, 70(4), 344–53.Google Scholar
Swearer, S. M., Wang, C., Berry, B., & Myers, Z. R. (2014). Reducing bullying: Application of social cognitive theory. Theory Into Practice, 53(4), 271–7.Google Scholar
Tanner, J., Asbridge, M., & Wortley, S. (2015). Leisure worlds: Situations, motivations and young people’s encounters with offending and victimization. Youth & Society, 47(2), 199–221.Google Scholar
Tanner-Smith, E. E., & Fisher, B. W. (2016). Visible school security measures and student academic performance, attendance, and postsecondary aspirations. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 45(1), 195–210.Google Scholar
Tanner-Smith, E. E., Fisher, B. W., Addington, L. A., & Gardella, J. H. (2018). Adding security, but subtracting safety? Exploring schools’ use of multiple visible security measures. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 43(1), 102–19.Google Scholar
Thoits, P. A. (2011). Mechanisms linking social ties and support to physical and mental health. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 52(2), 145–61.Google Scholar
Thomas, H. J., Connor, J. P., & Scott, J. G. (2018). Why do children and adolescents bully their peers? A critical review of key theoretical frameworks. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 53(5), 437–51.Google Scholar
Tibbits, M. K., Bumbarger, B. K., Kyler, S. J., & Perkins, D. F. (2010). Sustaining evidence-based interventions under real-world conditions: Results from a large-scale diffusion project. Prevention Science, 11(3), 252–62.Google Scholar
Tillyer, M. S., Wilcox, P., & Fissel, E. R. (2018). Violence in schools: Repeat victimization, low self-control, and the mitigating influence of school efficacy. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 34(2), 609–32.Google Scholar
Tippett, N., & Wolke, D. (2014). Socioeconomic status and bullying: A meta-analysis. American Journal of Public Health, 104(6), e48–59.Google Scholar
Tremblay, R. E., & Craig, W. M. (1995). Developmental crime prevention. Crime and Justice, 17, 151–236.Google Scholar
Troop-Gordon, W. (2017). Peer victimization in adolescence: The nature, progression, and consequences of being bullied within a developmental context. Journal of Adolescence, 55, 116–28.Google Scholar
Ttofi, M. M., & Farrington, D. P. (2011). Effectiveness of school-based programs to reduce bullying: A systematic and meta-analytic review. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 7(1), 27–56.Google Scholar
Turanovic, J. J., & Pratt, T. C. (2014). “Can’t stop, won’t stop”: Self-control, risky lifestyles, and repeat victimization. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 30(1), 29–56.Google Scholar
Turanovic, J. J., & Pratt, T. C. (2015). Longitudinal effects of violent victimization during adolescence on adverse outcomes in adulthood: A focus on prosocial attachments. Journal of Pediatrics, 166(4), 1062–9.Google Scholar
Turanovic, J. J., & Pratt, T. C. (2019). Thinking about victimization: Context and consequences. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Turanovic, J. J., & Pratt, T. C. (2021). Meta-analysis in criminology and criminal justice: Challenging the paradigm and charting a new path forward. Justice Evaluation Journal, 4(1), 21–47.Google Scholar
Turanovic, J. J., Reisig, M. D., & Pratt, T. C. (2015). Risky lifestyles, low self-control, and violent victimization across gendered pathways to crime. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 31(2), 183–206.Google Scholar
Turanovic, J. J., & Young, J. T. N. (2016). Violent offending and victimization in adolescence: Social network mechanisms and homophily. Criminology, 54(3), 487–519.Google Scholar
Twyman, K. A., Saylor, C. F., Saia, D., Macias, M. M., Taylor, L. A., & Spratt, E. (2010). Bullying and ostracism experiences in children with special health care needs. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics, 31(1), 1–8.Google Scholar
Unnever, J. D., & Cornell, D. G. (2003). Bullying, self-control, and ADHD. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 18(2), 129–47.Google Scholar
Unnever, J. D., & Gabbidon, S. L. (2011). A theory of African American offending: Race, racism, and crime. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
van den Noortgate, W., López-López, J. A., Marín-Martínez, F., & Sánchez-Meca, J. (2013). Three-level meta-analysis of dependent effect sizes. Behavior Research Methods, 45(2), 576–94.Google Scholar
van der Ploeg, R., Steglich, C., & Veenstra, R. (2020). The way bullying works: How new ties facilitate the mutual reinforcement of status and bullying in elementary schools. Social Networks, 60, 71–82.Google Scholar
Varela, J. J., Sirlopú, D., Melipillán, R., Espelage, D., Green, J., & Guzmán, J. (2019). Exploring the influence school climate on the relationship between school violence and adolescent subjective well-being. Child Indicators Research, 12(6), 2095–110.Google Scholar
Veenstra, R., Lindenberg, S., Oldehinkel, A. J., de Winter, A. F., Verhulst, F. C., & Ormel, J. (2005). Bullying and victimization in elementary schools: A comparison of bullies, victims, bully/victims,and uninvolved preadolescents. Developmental Psychology, 41(4), 672–82.Google Scholar
Veenstra, R., Lindenberg, S., Zijlstra, B. J. H., de Winter, A. F., Verhulst, F. C., & Ormel, J. (2007). The dyadic nature of bullying and victimization: Testing a dual-perspective theory. Child Development, 78(6), 1843–54.Google Scholar
Viano, S., Curran, F. C., & Fisher, B. W. (2021). Kindergarten cop: A case study of how a coalition between school districts and law enforcement led to school resource officers in elementary schools. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 43(2), 253–79.Google Scholar
Vitoroulis, I., & Georgiades, K. (2017). Bullying among immigrant and non-immigrant early adolescents: School-and student-level effects. Journal of Adolescence, 61, 141–51.Google Scholar
Walsh, A., & Ellis, L. (2007). Criminology: An interdisciplinary approach. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Walters, G. D. (2018). Starting off on the wrong foot: Cognitive impulsivity and low self-control as predictors of early school maladjustment. Deviant Behavior, 39(10), 1322–35.Google Scholar
Wang, K., Chen, Y., Zhang, J., & Oudekerk, B. A. (2020). Indicators of school crime and safety: 2019. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics, US Department of Education, and Bureau of Justice Statistics, Office of Justice Programs, US Department of Justice.Google Scholar
Wanless, S. B., & Domitrovich, C. E. (2015). Readiness to implement school-based social-emotional learning interventions: Using research on factors related to implementation to maximize quality. Prevention Science, 16(8), 1037–43.Google Scholar
Wei, H. S., Williams, J. H., Chen, J. K., & Chang, H. Y. (2010). The effects of individual characteristics, teacher practice, and school organizational factors on students’ bullying: A multilevel analysis of public middle schools in Taiwan. Children and Youth Services Review, 32(1), 137–43.Google Scholar
Weisburd, D., Farrington, D. P., & Gill, C. (eds.). (2016). What works in crime prevention and rehabilitation: Lessons from systematic reviews. New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Welch, K., & Payne, A. A. (2010). Racial threat and punitive school discipline. Social Problems, 57(1), 25–48.Google Scholar
Welch, K., & Payne, A. A. (2018). Zero tolerance school policies. In Deacon, J., Taylor, E., & Kupchik, A. (eds.), The Palgrave international handbook of school discipline, surveillance, and social control (pp. 215–34). London: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Welsh, W. N. (2001). Effects of student and school factors on five measures of school disorder. Justice Quarterly, 18(4), 911–47.Google Scholar
West, D. J., & Farrington, D. P. (1973). Who becomes delinquent? Second report of the Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development. London: Heinmann.Google Scholar
Wilcox, P., Augustine, M. C., & Clayton, R. R. (2006). Physical environment and crime and misconduct in Kentucky schools. Journal of Primary Prevention, 27(3), 293–313.Google Scholar
Wilcox, P., & Clayton, R. R. (2001). A multilevel analysis of school-based weapon possession. Justice Quarterly, 18(3), 509–41.Google Scholar
Wilcox, P., & Cullen, F. T. (2018). Situational opportunity theories of crime. Annual Review of Criminology, 1, 123–48.Google Scholar
Wilcox, P., May, D. C., & Roberts, S. D. (2006). Student weapon possession and the “fear and victimization hypothesis”: Unraveling the temporal order. Justice Quarterly, 23(4), 502–29.Google Scholar
Wilcox, P., Tillyer, M. S., & Fisher, B. S. (2009). Gendered opportunity? School-based adolescent victimization. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 46(2), 245–69.Google Scholar
Wilcox Rountree, P. (2000). Weapons at school: Are the predictors generalizable across context? Sociological Spectrum, 20(3), 291–324.Google Scholar
Wilcox Rountree, P., Land, K. C., & Miethe, T. D. (1994). Macro‐micro integration in the study of victimization: A hierarchical logistic model analysis across Seattle neighborhoods. Criminology, 32(3), 387–414.Google Scholar
Wiley, S. A., Slocum, L. A., O’Neill, J., & Esbensen, F. A. (2020). Beyond the Breakfast Club: Variability in the effects of suspensions by school context. Youth & Society, 52(7), 1259–84.Google Scholar
Williford, A., Boulton, A., Noland, B., Little, T. D., Kärnä, A., & Salmivalli, C. (2012). Effects of the KiVa anti-bullying program on adolescents’ depression, anxiety, and perception of peers. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 40(2), 289–300.Google Scholar
Wilson, J. Q., & Herrnstein, R. J. (1985). Crime and human nature. New York: The Free Press.Google Scholar
Wolfe, S. E., & Lawson, S. G. (2020). The organizational justice effect among criminal justice employees: A meta-analysis. Criminology, 58(4), 619–44.Google Scholar
Woolf, S. H. (2008). The meaning of translation research and why it matters. Journal of the American Medical Association, 299(2), 211–13.Google Scholar
Wright, J. C., Giammarino, M., & Parad, H. W. (1986). Social status in small groups: Individual-group similarity and the social “misfit.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50(3), 523–36.Google Scholar
Wright, K. A., Turanovic, J. J., O’Neal, E. N., Morse, S. J., & Booth, E. T. (2019). The cycle of violence revisited: Childhood victimization, resilience, and future violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 34(6), 1261–86.Google Scholar
Ybarra, M. L., Espelage, D. L., & Mitchell, K. J. (2014). Differentiating youth who are bullied from other victims of peer-aggression: The importance of differential power and repetition. Journal of Adolescent Health, 55(2), 293–300.Google Scholar
Young, J. (1999). The exclusive society: Social exclusion, crime and difference in late modernity. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Zalba, S. R. (1966). The abused child: I. A survey of the problem. Social Work, 11(4), 3–16.Google Scholar
Zaykowski, H., & Gunter, W. (2012). Youth victimization: School climate or deviant lifestyles? Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 27(3), 431–52.Google Scholar
Zimmer-Gembeck, M. (2016). Peer rejection, victimization, and relational self-system processes in adolescence: Toward a transactional model of stress, coping, and developing sensitivities. Child Development Perspectives, 10(2), 122–7.Google Scholar
Zych, I., Ttofi, M. M., & Farrington, D. P. (2019). Empathy and callous-unemotional traits in different bullying roles: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 20(1), 3–21.Google Scholar
- 15
- Cited by