Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-ndw9j Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-10T12:45:29.386Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Atypical depression spectrum disorder – neurobiology and treatment

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 June 2014

Harald Murck
Harald Murck*
Affiliation:
Lichtwer Pharma AG, Wallenrsderstr. 8–10, D-13435, Berlin, Germany
*
Harald Murck, Laxdale Ltd, Laurelhill Business Park, Stirling FK7 9JQ, UK. Tel. ++44 1786 476022; Fax: ++44 1786 473137; E-mail: haraldmurck@yahoo.de
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Depressive syndromes are a group of heterogeneous disorders. Atypical depression (AD) with reversed vegetative signs, such as hyperphagia or hypersomnia, is traditionally neglected, demonstrated by the fact that in the most widely used depression scales, such as the Hamilton Depression Scale (HAMD), melancholic symptoms have a specific weight, while, by contrast, reversed vegetative signs are not included. However, epidemiologically and phenomenologically related disorders to AD do exist, such as somatoform disorders, neurasthenia (chronic fatigue syndrome) and fibromyalgia (FM). In this spectrum, here called the AD spectrum, instead a decrease in hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenocortical (HPA) axis activity seems to exist. This has similarities to Cushing's disease, where a suppression of central HPA system activity is accompanied by features of AD and somatization in a considerable number of patients. Opposite vegetative features might therefore be related to the opposite dysregulation of the HPA system. The psychopharmacological intervention in the AD spectrum should therefore differ from that used in typical major depression. MAO inhibitors, low-dose tricyclic antidepressants and 5-HT3 antagonists demonstrated therapeutic efficacy, but the existing studies focused on different aspects. Hypericum extracts might be an alternative pharmacological intervention, which demonstrated therapeutic efficacy in the symptom range of the spectrum.

Keywords

atypical depressioncortisolfibromyalgiaHPA axishypericumhypocortisolismMAO inhibitormelancholic depressionneurastheniap-glycoproteinsomatoform disorderstricyclic antidepressant
Type
Review Article
Information
Acta Neuropsychiatrica , Volume 15 , Issue 4 , August 2003 , pp. 227 - 241
Copyright
Copyright © 2003 Blackwell Munksgaard

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Nierenberg, AA, Alpert, JE, Pava, Jet al. Course and treatment of atypical depression. J Clin Psychiatry 1998;59(Suppl. 18):5–9.Google ScholarPubMed
Paykel, ES, Parker, RR, Rowan, PRet al. Nosology of atypical depression. Psychol Med 1983;13: 131–139.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clauw, DJ, Chrousos, GP. Chronic pain and fatigue syndromes. overlapping clinical and neuroendocrine features and potential pathogenic mechanisms. Neuroimmunomodulation 1997;4: 134–153.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lentjes, EG, Griep, EN, Boersma, JWet al. Glucocorticoid receptors, fibromyalgia and low back pain. Psychoneuroendocrinology 1997;22: 603–614.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wessely, S, Nimnuan, C, Sharpe, M. Functional somatic syndromes: one or many? Lancet 1999;354: 936–939.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buchwald, D, Pearlman, T, Kith, Pet al. Screening for psychiatric disorders in chronic fatigue and chronic fatigue syndrome. J Psychosom Res 1997;42: 87–94.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Katon, WJ, Buchwald, DS, Simon, GEet al. Psychiatric illness in patients with chronic fatigue and those with rheumatoid arthritis. J General Intern Med 1991;6: 277–285. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Terman, M, Levine, SM, Terman, JSet al. Chronic fatigue syndrome and seasonal affective disorder: comorbidity, diagnostic overlap, and implications for treatment. Am J Med 1998;105: 115S–124S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Escobar, JI, Rubio-Stipec, M, Canino, Get al. Somatic symptom index (SSI): a new and abridged somatization construct. Prevalence and epidemiological correlates in two large community samples. J Nerv Ment Dis 1989;177: 140–146.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Walker, EA, Katon, WJ, Jemelka, RP. Psychiatric disorders and medical care utilization among people in the general population who report fatigue. J General Intern Med 1993;8: 436–440. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bankier, B, Aigner, M, Bach, M. Clinical validity of ICD-10 neurasthenia. Psychopathology 2001;34: 134–139.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Farmer, A, Jones, I, Hillier, Jet al. Neuraesthenia revisited: ICD-10 and DSM-III–R psychiatric syndromes in chronic fatigue patients and comparison subjects. Br J Psychiatry 1995;167: 503–506.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Merikangas, K, Angst, J. Neurasthenia in a longitudinal cohort study of young adults. Psychol Med 1994;24: 1013–1024.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Addington, AM, Gallo, JJ, Ford, DEet al. Epidemiology of unexplained fatigue and major depression in the community: the Baltimore ECA follow-up, 1981–94. Psychol Med 2001;31: 1037–1044.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kroenke, K, Wood, DR, Mangelsdorff, ADet al. Chronic fatigue in primary care. Prevalence, patient characteristics, and outcome. J Am Med Assoc 1988;260: 929–934. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fink, P. Psychiatric illness in patients with persistent somatisation. Br J Psychiatry 1995;166: 93–99.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rief, W, Schaefer, S, Hiller, Wet al. Lifetime diagnoses in patients with somatoform disorders: which came first? Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 1992;241: 236–240.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wittchen, HU, Essau, CA, Rief, Wet al. Assessment of somatoform disorders and comorbidity patterns with the CIDI-findings in psychosomatic inpatients. Int J Meth Psychiatr Res 1993;3: 87–99. Google Scholar
Lieb, R, Pfister, H, Mastaler, Met al. Somatoform syndromes and disorders in a representative population sample of adolescents and young adults: prevalence, comorbidity and impairments. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2000;101: 194–208.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davidson, J, Krishnan, R, France, Ret al. Neurovegetative symptoms in chronic pain and depression. J Affect Disord 1985;9: 213–218.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Horwath, E, Johnson, J, Weissman, MMet al. The validity of major depression with atypical features based on a community study. J Affect Disord 1992;26: 117–125.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lonnqvist, J, Sihvo, S, Syvalahti, Eet al. Moclobemide and fluoxetine in atypical depression: a double-blind trial. J Affect Disord 1994;32: 169–177.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wolfe, F, Smythe, HA, Yunus, MBet al. The American College of Rheumatology 1990 criteria for the classification of fibromyalgia. Report of the Multicenter Criteria Committee. Arthritis Rheum 1990;33: 160–172.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aaron, LA, Burke, MM, Buchwald, D. Overlapping conditions among patients with chronic fatigue syndrome, fibromyalgia, and temporomandibular disorder. Arch Intern Med 2000;160: 221–227.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Epstein, SA, Kay, G, Clauw, Det al. Psychiatric disorders in patients with fibromyalgia. A multicenter investigation. Psychosomatics 1999;40: 57–63.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stewart, JW, McGrath, PJ, Quitkin, FMet al. Relevance of DMS-III depressive subtype and chronicity of antidepressant efficacy in atypical depression. Differential response to phenelzine, imipramine, and placebo. Arch General Psychiatry 1989;46: 1080–1087. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sotsky, SM, Simmens, SJ. Pharmacotherapy response and diagnostic validity in atypical depression. J Affect Disord 1999;54: 237–247.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Paykel, ES, Rowan, PR, Parker, RRet al. Response to phenelzine and amitriptyline in subtypes of outpatient depression. Arch General Psychiatry 1982;39: 1041–1049. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davidson, JR, Giller, EL, Zisook, Set al. An efficacy study of isocarboxazid and placebo in depression, and its relationship to depressive nosology. Arch General Psychiatry 1988;45: 120–127. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Paykel, ES, Parker, RR, Penrose, RJet al. Depressive classification and prediction of response to phenelzine. Br J Psychiatry 1979;134: 572–581.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McGrath, PJ, Stewart, JW, Janal, MNet al. A placebo-controlled study of fluoxetine versus imipramine in the acute treatment of atypical depression. Am J Psychiatry 2000;157: 344–350.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pande, AC, Birkett, M, Fechner-Bates, Set al. Fluoxetine versus phenelzine in atypical depression. Biol Psychiatry 1996;40: 1017–1020.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goodnick, PJ, Dominguez, RA, Devane, CLet al. Bupropion slow-release response in depression: diagnosis and biochemistry. Biol Psychiatry 1998;44: 629–632.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Natelson, Bh, Cheu, J, Pareja, Jet al. Randomized, double blind, controlled placebo-phase in trial of low dose phenelzine in the chronic fatigue syndrome. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1996;124: 226–230.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
White, PD, Cleary, KJ. An open study of the efficacy and adverse effects of moclobemide in patients with the chronic fatigue syndrome. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 1997;12: 47–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hannonen, P, Malminiemi, K, Yli-Kerttula, Uet al. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of moclobemide and amitriptyline in the treatment of fibromyalgia in females without psychiatric disorder. Br J Rheumatol 1998;37: 1279–1286.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldenberg, D, Mayskiy, M, Mossey, Cet al. A randomized, double-blind crossover trial of fluoxetine and amitriptyline in the treatment of fibromyalgia. Arthritis Rheum 1996;39: 1852–1859.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carette, S, McCain, GA, Bell, DAet al. Evaluation of amitriptyline in primary fibrositis. A double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Arthritis Rheum 1986;29: 655–659.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fors, EA, Sexton, H, Gotestam, KG. The effect of guided imagery and amitriptyline on daily fibromyalgia pain: a prospective, randomized, controlled trial. J Psychiatr Res 2002;36: 179–187.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carette, S, Oakson, G, Guimont, Cet al. Sleep electroencephalography and the clinical response to amitriptyline in patients with fibromyalgia. Arthritis Rheum 1995;38: 1211–1217.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carette, S, Bell, MJ, Reynolds, WJet al. Comparison of amitriptyline, cyclobenzaprine, and placebo in the treatment of fibromyalgia. A randomized, double-blind clinical trial. Arthritis Rheum 1994;37: 32–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Quimby, LG, Gratwick, GM, Whitney, CDet al. A randomized trial of cyclobenzaprine for the treatment of fibromyalgia. J Rheumatol Suppl 1989;19: 140–143.Google ScholarPubMed
Bennett, RM, Gatter, RA, Campbell, SMet al. A comparison of cyclobenzaprine and placebo in the management of fibrositis. A double-blind controlled study. Arthritis Rheum 1988;31: 1535–1542.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caruso, I, Sarzi, PP, Boccassini, Let al. Double-blind study of dothiepin versus placebo in the treatment of primary fibromyalgia syndrome. J Int Med Res 1987;15: 154–159.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Volz, HP, Möller, H-J, Reimann, Iet al. Opipramol for the treatment of somatoform disorders results from a placebo-controlled trial. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2000;10: 211–217.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Halama, P. Wirksamkeit des Hypericum-Extraktes LI 160 bei 50 Patienten einer psychiatrischen Fachpraxis. Nervenheilkunde 1991;10: 305–307. Google Scholar
Sommer, H, Harrer, G. Placebo-controlled double-blind study examining the effetiveness of an hypericum preparation in 105 mildly depressed patients. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol 1994;7: S9–S11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fava, M, Alpert, JE, Nierenberg, AAet al. A double-blind, randomized trial of St. John's Wort, fluoxetine, and placebo in major depressive disorder. Presentation of the annual meeting of the American Psychiatric Association, 2002. Google Scholar
Murck, H, Fava, M, Alpert, Jet al. Favorable response with hypericum extract in patients with depression with reversed vegetative signs reanalysis from data of a double-blind, randomized trial of hypericum extract, fluoxetine, and placebo in major depressive disorder. Biol Psychiatry 2003;53: 194–195. Google Scholar
Wheatley, D. Hypericum in seasonal affective disorder (SAD). Curr Med Res Opinion 1999;15: 33–37. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kasper, S. Treatment of seasonal affective disorder (SAD) with hypericum extract. Pharmacopsychiatry 1997;30(Suppl. 2):89–93.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Martinez, B, Kasper, S, Ruhrmann, Set al. Hypericum in the treatment of seasonal affective disorders. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol 1994;7: 29–33. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stevinson, C, Dixon, M, Ernst, E. Hypericum for fatigue – a pilot study. Phytomedicine 1998;5: 443–447. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Volz, H-P, Murck, H, Kasper, Set al. St. John's wort extract (LI 160) in somatoform disorders – results of a placebo-conrolled trial. Psychopharmacology 2002;164: 294–300.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Woelk, H. Comparison of St John's wort and imipramine for treating depression: randomised controlled trial. Br Med J 2000;321: 536–539. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hübner, W-D, Lande, S, Podzuweit, H. Hypericum treatment of mild depressions with somatic symptoms. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol 1994;7: 12–14. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Woelk, H, Burkard, G, Grünwald, J. Benefits and risks of the hypericum extract li 160 drug monitoring study with 3250 patients. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol 1994; 7: 34–38. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grube, B, Schermuck, S, Hopfenmüller, Wet al. Use of a hypericum extract in mild, transient depressive mood disorders. Eur J Clin Res 1997;9: 293–302. Google Scholar
Wearden, AJ, Morriss, RK, Mullis, Ret al. Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled treatment trial of fluoxetine and graded exercise for chronic fatigue syndrome. Br J Psychiatry 1998;172: 485–490.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vercoulen, Jh, Swanink, CM, Zitman, FGet al. Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of fluoxetine in chronic fatigue syndrome. Lancet 1996;347: 858–861.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anderberg, UM, Marteinsdottir, I, Von Knorring, L. Citalopram in patients with fibromyalgia – a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Eur J Pain 2000;4: 27–35.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Norregaard, J, Volkmann, H, Danneskiold-Samsoe, B. A randomized controlled trial of citalopram in the treatment of fibromyalgia. Pain 1995;61: 445–449.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wolfe, F, Cathey, MA, Hawley, DJ. A double-blind placebo controlled trial of fluoxetine in fibromyalgia. Scand J Rheumatol 1994;23: 255–259.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arnold, LM, Hess, EV, Hudson, JIet al. A randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind, flexible-dose study of fluoxetine in the treatment of women with fibromyalgia. Am J Med 2002;112: 191–197.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Noyes, RJ, Happel, RL, Muller, BAet al. Fluvoxamine for somatoform disorders: an open trial. General Hosp Psychiatry 1998;20: 339–344. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bouwer, C, Claassen, J, Dinan, TGet al. Prednisone augmentation in treatment-resistant depression with fatigue and hypocortisolaemia: a case series. Depress Anxiety 2000;12: 44–50.3.0.CO;2-C>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rowe, PC, Calkins, H, Debusk, Ket al. Fludrocortisone acetate to treat neurally mediated hypotension in chronic fatigue syndrome: a randomized controlled trial. J Am Med Assoc 2001;285: 52–59. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McKenzie, R, O'Fallon, A, Dale, Jet al. Low-dose hydrocortisone for treatment of chronic fatigue syndrome: a randomized controlled trial. J Am Med Assoc 1998;280: 1061–1066. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cleare, AJ, Heap, E, Malhi, GSet al. Low-dose hydrocortisone in chronic fatigue syndrome: a randomised crossover trial. Lancet 1999;353: 455–458.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clark, S, Tindall, E, Bennett, RM. A double blind crossover trial of prednisone versus placebo in the treatment of fibrositis. J Rheumatol 1985;12: 980–983.Google ScholarPubMed
Tiller, J, Schweitzer, I, Maguire, Ket al. A sequential double-blind controlled study of moclobemide and diazepam in patients with atypical depression. J Affect Disord 1989;16: 181–187.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pizzolato, G, Cagnin, A, Mancia, Det al. Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of pivagabine in neurasthenia. Arzneimittelforschung 1997;47: 1329–1331.Google ScholarPubMed
Quijada-Carrera, J, Valenzuela-Castano, A, Povedano-Gomez, Jet al. Comparison of tenoxicam and bromazepan in the treatment of fibromyalgia: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Pain 1996;65: 221–225.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gronblad, M, Nykanen, J, Konttinen, Yet al. Effect of zopiclone on sleep quality, morning stiffness, widespread tenderness and pain and general discomfort in primary fibromyalgia patients. A double-blind randomized trial. Clin Rheumatol 1993;12: 186–191.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vollmer-Conna, U, Hickie, I, Hadzi-Pavlovic, Det al. Intravenous immunoglobulin is ineffective in the treatment of patients with chronic fatigue syndrome. Am J Med 1997;103: 38–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rowe, KS. Double-blind randomized controlled trial to assess the efficacy of intravenous gammaglobulin for the management of chronic fatigue syndrome in adolescents. J Psychiatr Res 1997;31: 133–147.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Straus, SE, Dale, JK, Tobi, Met al. Acyclovir treatment of the chronic fatigue syndrome. Lack of efficacy in a placebo-controlled trial. N Engl J Med 1988;319: 1692–1698.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yunus, MB, Masi, AT, Aldag, JC. Short term effects of ibuprofen in primary fibromyalgia syndrome: a double blind, placebo controlled trial. J Rheumatol 1989;16: 527–532.Google ScholarPubMed
Russell, IJ, Michalek, JE, Kang, YKet al. Reduction of morning stiffness and improvement in physical function in fibromyalgia syndrome patients treated sublingually with low doses of human interferon-alpha. J Interferon Cytokine Res 1999;19: 961–968.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Spath, M, Welzel, D, Farber, L. Treatment of chronic fatigue syndrome with 5-HT3 receptor antagonists – preliminary results. Scand J Rheumatol Suppl 2000;113: 72–77.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olin, R, Klein, R, Berg, PA. A randomised double-blind 16-week study of ritanserin in fibromyalgia syndrome: clinical outcome and analysis of autoantibodies to serotonin, gangliosides and phospholipids. Clin Rheumatol 1998;17: 89–94.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caruso, I, Sarzi, PP, Cazzola, Met al. Double-blind study of 5-hydroxytryptophan versus placebo in the treatment of primary fibromyalgia syndrome. J Int Med Res 1990;18: 201–209.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Farber, L, Stratz, T, Bruckle, Wet al. Efficacy and tolerability of tropisetron in primary fibromyalgia – a highly selective and competitive 5-HT3 receptor antagonist. German Fibromyalgia Study Group. Scand J Rheumatol Suppl 2000;113: 49–54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Papadopoulos, IA, Georgiou, PE, Katsimbri, PPet al. Treatment of fibromyalgia with tropisetron, a 5HT3 serotonin antagonist: a pilot study. Clin Rheumatol 2000;19: 6–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stratz, T, Farber, L, Varga, Bet al. Fibromyalgia treatment with intravenous tropisetron administration. Drugs Exp Clin Res 2001;27: 113–118.Google ScholarPubMed
Wesnes, KA, Faleni, RA, Hefting, NRet al. The cognitive, subjective, and physical effects of a ginkgo biloba/panax ginseng combination in healthy volunteers with neurasthenic complaints. Psychopharmacol Bull 1997;33: 677–683.Google ScholarPubMed
Warren, G, McKendrick, M, Peet, M. The role of essential fatty acids in chronic fatigue syndrome. A case-controlled study of red-cell membrane essential fatty acids (EFA) and a placebo-controlled treatment study with high dose of EFA. Acta Neurol Scand 1999;99: 112–116.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cox, IM, Campbell, MJ, Dowson, D. Red blood cell magnesium and chronic fatigue syndrome. Lancet 1991;337: 757–760.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jacobsen, S, Danneskiold-Samsoe, B, Andersen, RB. Oral S-adenosylmethionine in primary fibromyalgia. Double-blind clinical evaluation. Scand J Rheumatol 1991;20: 294–302.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tavoni, A, Vitali, C, Bombardieri, Set al. Evaluation of S-adenosylmethionine in primary fibromyalgia. A double-blind crossover study. Am J Med 1987;83: 107–110.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Volkmann, H, Norregaard, J, Jacobsen, Set al. Double-blind, placebo-controlled cross-over study of intravenous S-adenosyl-L-methionine in patients with fibromyalgia. Scand J Rheumatol 1997;26: 206–211.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bennett, RM, Clark, SC, Walczyk, J. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of growth hormone in the treatment of fibromyalgia. Am J Med 1998;104: 227–231.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kin, NM, Nair, NP, Amin, Met al. The dexamethasone suppression test and treatment outcome in elderly depressed patients participating in a placebo-controlled multicenter trial involving moclobemide and nortriptyline. Biol Psychiatry 1997;42: 925–931.Google Scholar
Janicak, PG, Pandey, GN, Sharma, Ret al. Pretreatment dexamethasone suppression test as a predictor of response to phenelzine. J Clin Psychiatry 1987;48: 480–482.Google ScholarPubMed
Rihmer, Z, Barsi, J, Vad, Get al. Moclobemide (Aurorix) in primary major depression. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 1994;18: 367–372.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alevizos, B, Hatzimanolis, J, Markianos, Met al. Clinical, endocrine and neurochemical effects of moclobemide in depressed patients. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1993;87: 285–290.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carroll, BJ, Curtis, GC, Mendels, J. Cerebrospinal fluid and plasma free cortisol concentrations in depression. Psychol Med 1976;6: 235–244.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maes, M, Lin, A, Bonaccorso, Set al. Increased 24-hour urinary cortisol excretion in patients with post- traumatic stress disorder and patients with major depression, but not in patients with fibromyalgia. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1998;98: 328–335.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oldehinkel, AJ, Van Den Berg, MD, Flentge, Fet al. Urinary free cortisol excretion in elderly persons with minor and major depression. Psychiatry Res 2001;104: 39–47.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Antonijevic, IA, Murck, H, Frieboes, RMet al. Sexually dimorphic effects of GHRH on sleep-endocrine activity in patients with depression and normal controls – part II. hormone secretion. Sleep Res Online 2000;3: 15–21.Google ScholarPubMed
Casper, RC, Swann, AC, Stokes, PEet al. Weight loss, cortisol levels, and dexamethasone suppression in major depressive disorder. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1987;75: 243–250.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maes, M, Maes, L, Suy, E. Symptom profiles of biological markers in depression: a multivariate study. Psychoneuroendocrinology 1990;15: 29–37.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miller, KB, Nelson, JC. Does the dexamethasone suppression test relate to subtypes, factors, symptoms, or severity? Arch General Psychiatry 1987;44: 769–774. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barocka, A, Pichl, J, Beck, Get al. Factors interfering with the 1 mg dexamethasone suppression test in depression. Pharmacopsychiatry 1987;20: 258–261.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Casper, RC, Kocsis, J, Dysken, Met al. Cortisol measures in primary major depressive disorder with hypersomnia or appetite increase. J Affect Disord 1988;15: 131–140.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thase, ME, Himmelhoch, JM, Mallinger, AGet al. Sleep EEG and DST findings in anergic bipolar depression. Am J Psychiatry 1989;146: 329–333.Google ScholarPubMed
Joseph-Vanderpool, JR, Rosenthal, NE, Chrousos, GPet al. Abnormal pituitary-adrenal responses to corticotropin-releasing hormone in patients with seasonal affective disorder: clinical and pathophysiological implications. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1991;72: 1382–1387.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Geracioti, TDJ, Loosen, PT, Gold, PWet al. Cortisol, thyroid hormone, and mood in atypical depression: a longitudinal case study. Biol Psychiatry 1992;31: 515–519.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Avery, Dh, Dahl, K, Savage, MVet al. Circadian temperature and cortisol rhythms during a constant routine are phase-delayed in hypersomnic winter depression. Biol Psychiatry 1997;41: 1109–1123.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Geracioti, TDJ, Loosen, PT, Orth, DN. Low cerebrospinal fluid corticotropin-releasing hormone concentrations in eucortisolemic depression. Biol Psychiatry 1997;42: 165–174.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thase, ME. Depression, sleep, and antidepressants. J Clin Psychiatry 1998;59(Suppl. 4):55–65.Google ScholarPubMed
Gold, PW, Chrousos, GP. The endocrinology of melancholic and atypical depression. relation to neurocircuity and somatic consequences. Proc Assoc Am Physicians 1998;111: 22–34. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Poteliakhoff, A. Adrenocortical activity and some clinical findings in acute and chronic fatigue. J Psychosom Res 1981;25: 91–95.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cleare, AJ, Bearn, J, Allain, Tet al. Contrasting neuroendocrine responses in depression and chronic fatigue syndrome. J Affect Disord 1995;34: 283–289.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Demitrack, MA, Dale, JK, Straus, SEet al. Evidence for impaired activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metabol 1991;73: 1224–1234. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Scott, LV, Dinan, TG. Urinary free cortisol excretion in chronic fatigue syndrome, major depression and in healthy volunteers. J Affect Disord 1998;47: 49–54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cleare, AJ, Blair, D, Chambers, Set al. Urinary free cortisol in chronic fatigue syndrome. Am J Psychiatry 2001;158: 641–643.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Young, Ah, Sharpe, M, Clements, Aet al. Basal activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in patients with the chronic fatigue syndrome (neurasthenia). Biol Psychiatry 1998;43: 236–237.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scott, LV, Teh, J, Reznek, Ret al. Small adrenal glands in chronic fatigue syndrome: a preliminary computer tomography study. Psychoneuroendocrinology 1999; 24: 759–768.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nemeroff, CB, Krishnan, KR, Reed, Det al. Adrenal gland enlargement in major depression. A computed tomographic study. Arch General Psychiatry 1992;49: 384–387. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rubin, RT, Phillips, JJ, Sadow, TFet al. Adrenal gland volume in major depression. Increase during the depressive episode and decrease with successful treatment. Arch General Psychiatry 1995;52: 213–218. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Visser, J, Blauw, B, Hinloopen, Bet al. CD4 T lymphocytes from patients with chronic fatigue syndrome have decreased interferon-gamma production and increased sensitivity to dexamethasone. J Infect Dis 1998;177: 451–454.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wodarz, N, Rupprecht, R, Kornhuber, Jet al. Normal lymphocyte responsiveness to lectins but impaired sensitivity to in vitro glucocorticoids in major depression. J Affect Disord 1991;22: 241–248.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rupprecht, R, Kornhuber, J, Wodarz, Net al. Disturbed glucocorticoid receptor autoregulation and corticotropin response to dexamethasone in depressives pretreated with metyrapone. Biol Psychiatry 1991;29: 1099–1109.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Young, EA, Lopez, JF, Murphy-Weinberg, Vet al. Hormonal evidence for altered responsiveness to social stress in major depression. Neuropsychopharmacology 2000;23: 411–418.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kudoh, A, Ishihara, H, Matsuki, A. Inhibition of the cortisol response to surgical stress in chronically depressed patients. J Clin Anesth 2000;12: 383–387.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bearn, J, Allain, T, Coskeran, Pet al. Neuroendocrine responses to d-fenfluramine and insulin-induced hypoglycemia in chronic fatigue syndrome. Biol Psychiatry 1995;37: 245–252.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Griep, EN, Boersma, JW, De Kloet, ER. Altered reactivity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in the primary fibromyalgia syndrome. J Rheumatol 1993;20: 469–474.Google ScholarPubMed
Clauw, DJ. The pathogenesis of chronic pain and fatigue syndromes, with special reference to fibromyalgia. Med Hypotheses 1995;44: 369–378.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McCain, GA, Tilbe, KS. Diurnal hormone variation in fibromyalgia syndrome: a comparison with rheumatoid arthritis. J Rheumatol Suppl 1989;19: 154–157.Google ScholarPubMed
Crofford, LJ, Pillemer, SR, Kalogeras, KTet al. Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis perturbations in patients with fibromyalgia. Arthritis Rheum 1994;37: 1583–1592.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Russell, IJ, Vaeroy, H, Javors, Met al. Cerebrospinal fluid biogenic amine metabolites in fibromyalgia/fibrositis syndrome and rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 1992;35: 550–556.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Legangneux, E, Mora, JJ, Spreux-Varoquaux, Oet al. Cerebrospinal fluid biogenic amine metabolites, plasma-rich platelet serotonin and [3H]imipramine reuptake in the primary fibromyalgia syndrome. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2001;40: 290–296.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Koob, GF. Corticotropin-releasing factor, norepinephrine, and stress. Biol Psychiatry 1999;46: 1167–1180.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crofford, LJ, Engleberg, NC, Demitrack, MA. Neurohormonal perturbations in fibromyalgia. Baillieres Clin Rheumatol 1996;10: 365–378.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ferraccioli, G, Cavalieri, F, Salaffi, Fet al. Neuroendocrinologic findings in primary fibromyalgia (soft tissue chronic pain syndrome) and in other chronic rheumatic conditions (rheumatoid arthritis, low back pain). J Rheumatol 1990;17: 869–873.Google Scholar
Adler, GK, Kinsley, BT, Hurwitz, Set al. Reduced hypothalamic-pituitary and sympathoadrenal responses to hypoglycemia in women with fibromyalgia syndrome. Am J Med 1999;106: 534–543.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rief, W, Shaw, R, Fichter, MM. Elevated levels of psychophysiological arousal and cortisol in patients with somatization syndrome. Psychosom Med 1998;60: 198–203.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pruessner, JC, Hellhammer, Dh, Kirschbaum, C. Burnout, perceived stress, and cortisol responses to awakening. Psychosom Med 1999;61: 197–204.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Angst, J, Gamma, A, Sellaro, Ret al. Toward validation of atypical depression in the community: results of the Zurich cohort study. J Affect Disord 2002;72: 125–138.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kornstein, SG, Schatzberg, AF, Thase, MEet al. Gender differences in treatment response to sertraline versus imipramine in chronic depression. Am J Psychiatry 2000;157: 1445–1452.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murck, H, Nickel, T, Künzel, Het al. State markers of depression in sleep EEG. Dependency on drug and gender in patients treated with tianeptine or paroxetine. Neuropsychopharmacology 2003;28: 348–358.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dorn, LD, Burgess, ES, Dubbert, Bet al. Psychopathology in patients with endogenous Cushing's syndrome: ‘atypical’ or melancholic features. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1995;43: 433–442.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dorn, LD, Burgess, ES, Friedman, TCet al. The longitudinal course of psychopathology in Cushing's syndrome after correction of hypercortisolism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1997;82: 912–919.Google ScholarPubMed
Kling, MA, Roy, A, Doran, ARet al. Cerebrospinal fluid immunoreactive corticotropin-releasing hormone and adrenocorticotropin secretion in Cushing's disease and major depression: potential clinical implications. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1991;72: 260–271.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gowans, SE, DeHueck, A, Voss, Set al. Effect of a randomized, controlled trial of exercise on mood and physical function in individuals with fibromyalgia. Arthritis Rheum 2001;45: 519–529.3.0.CO;2-3>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fulcher, KY, White, PD. Randomised controlled trial of graded exercise in patients with the chronic fatigue syndrome. Br Med J 1997;314: 1647–1652. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Duclos, M, Corcuff, JB, Pehourcq, Fet al. Decreased pituitary sensitivity to glucocorticoids in endurance-trained men. Eur J Endocrinol 2001;144: 363–368.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Struder, HK, Hollmann, W, Platen, Pet al. Neuroendocrine system and mental function in sedentary and endurance-trained elderly males. Int J Sports Med 1999;20: 159–166.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lawlor, DA, Hopker, SW. The effectiveness of exercise as an intervention in the management of depression: systematic review and meta-regression analysis of randomised controlled trials. Br Med J 2001;322: 763–767. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Holsboer-Trachsler, E, Brand, S, Hatzinger, Met al. Effects of Hypericum extract on sleep-EEG and DEX/CRH-test in patients with depression. Biol Psychiatry 2001;49: 9S. Google Scholar
Steiger, A, Benkert, O, Holsboer, F. Effects of long-term treatment with the MAO-A inhibitor moclobemide on sleep EEG and nocturnal hormonal secretion in normal men. Neuropsychobiology 1994;30: 101–105.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meltzer, HY, Lowy, M, Robertson, Aet al. Effect of 5-hydroxytryptophan on serum cortisol levels in major affective disorders. III. Effect of antidepressants and lithium carbonate. Arch General Psychiatry 1984;41: 391–397. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Calogero, AE, Bagdy, G, Burrello, Net al. Role for serotonin3 receptors in the control of adrenocorticotropic hormone release from rat pituitary cell cultures. Eur J Endocrinol 1995;133: 251–254.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meijer, OC, De Lange, EC, Breimer, DDet al. Penetration of dexamethasone into brain glucocorticoid targets is enhanced in mdr1A P-glycoprotein knockout mice. Endocrinology 1998;139: 1789–1793.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Uhr, M, Holsboer, F, Muller, MB. Penetration of endogenous steroid hormones corticosterone, cortisol, aldosterone and progesterone into the brain is enhanced in mice deficient for both mdrla and mdrlb P-glycoproteins. J Neuroendocrinol 2002;14: 753–759.Google Scholar
Müller, MB, Keck, ME, Binder, EB, et al. ABCB1 (MDR1)-type P-glycoprotein at the blood-brain barrier modulate the activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical system: implications for affective disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology 2003, in press.Google ScholarPubMed
Dürr, D, Stieger, B, Kullak-Ublick, GAet al. St John's Wort induces intestinal P-glycoprotein/MDR1 and intestinal and hepatic CYP3A4. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2000;68: 598–604.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hennessy, M, Kelleher, D, Spiers, JPet al. St John's Wort increases expression of P-glycoprotein: implications for drug interactions. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2002;53: 75–82.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Franklin, M, Reed, A, Murck, H. Sub-chronic treatment with an extract of Hypericum perforatum (St John's wort) significantly reduces cortisol and corticosterone in the rat brain. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2003, in press. Google ScholarPubMed
Fukuda, K, Straus, SE, Hickie, Iet al. The chronic fatigue syndrome: a comprehensive approach to its definition and study. International Chronic Fatigue Syndrome Study Group. Ann Intern Med 1994;121: 953–959.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed