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United States Issues New National Security Document, Reaffirms Possible Preemptive Use of Force

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  27 February 2017

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Type
Contemporary Practice of the United States Relating to International Law
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American Journal of International Law , Volume 100 , Issue 3 , July 2006 , pp. 690 - 691
Copyright
Copyright © American Society of International Law 2006

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References

1 The National Security Strategy of the United States of America, March 2006 Google Scholar, at <http://www.whitehouse.gov/nsc/nss/2006/nss2006.pdf> [hereinafter National Security Strategy]; see David, E. Sanger, Report Backs Iraq Strike and Cites Iran Peril, N.Y. Times, Mar. 16, 2006, at A6Google Scholar; Peter, Baker, Bush to Restate Terror Strategy, Wash. Post, Mar. 16, 2006, at A1Google Scholar; Henry, A. Kissinger, The Rules on Preventive Force, Wash. Post, Apr. 9, 2006, at B7Google Scholar.

2 National Security Strategy, supra note l, at 25.

3 Id. at 23.

4 See Seymour, M. Hersch, The Iran Plans. Would President Bush Goto War to Stop Tehran from Getting the Bomb? New Yorker, Apr. 17, 2006, at 30 Google Scholar, available at <http://www.newyorker.com/fact/content/articles/060417fafact>; Peter, Baker, Dafna, Linzer, & Thomas, E. Ricks, U.S. Is Studying Military Strike Options on Iran, Wash. Post, Apr. 9, 2006, at A1Google Scholar; Matt, Spetalnick & Steve, Holland, Official Dismisses Iran Policy Reports, Wash. Post, Apr. 10, 2006, at A10Google Scholar; Jim, Rutenberg, Bush Insists on Diplomacy in Confronting a Nuclear Iran, N.Y. Times, Apr. 11, 2006, at A3Google Scholar; Peter, Baker, Bush Dismisses Talk of Using Force Against Iran, Wash. Post, Apr. 11, 2006, at A2Google Scholar; David, E. Sanger & Eric, Schmitt, At the White House, Engaging Iran with Words over Action, N.Y. Times, Apr. 12, 2006, at A8Google Scholar; William, Arkin, The Pentagon Preps for Iran, Wash. Post, Apr. 16, 2006, at B1Google Scholar.

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6 National Security Strategy, supra note 1, at 37.

7 Id. at 53.

1 Gonzales v. O Centro Espirita Beneficiente Uniao Do Vegetal, 126 S.Ct. 1211 (2006).

2 Feb. 21, 1971, 32 UST 543, 1019 UNTS 175.

3 21 U.S.C. §812(c), sched. I(c).

4 Religious Freedom Restoration Act of 1993, 42 U.S.C. 2000bb–2000bb–4 (2000).

5 O Centro Espirita Beneficiente Uniao Do Vegetal v. Ashcroft, 342 F.3d 1170 (10th Cir. 2003). The standard for the grant of preliminary injunctions utilized in the Tenth Circuit panel decision was subsequently reviewed and affirmed by the Tenth Circuit sitting en banc.

6 126 S.Ct. at 1225 (citations omitted).

1 Bancoult, v. McNamara, 445 F.3d 427 (D.C. Cir. 2006)Google Scholar, at <http://www.cadc.uscourts.gov/internet/internet.nsf>.

2 Bancoultv. McNamara, 370 F.Supp.2d 1 (D.D.C. 2004).

3 412 F.3d 190 (D.C. Cir. 2005), cert, denied, 2006 U.S. lexis 2855 (U.S. Apr. 17, 2006).

4 369 U.S. 186 (1962).

5 445 F.3d at 433.

6 Id. at 436–37 (citations and footnote omitted).

7 Court Victory for Chagos Families, BBC News, May 11, 2006 Google Scholar, at <http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uknews/4760879.stm>. The High Court’s opinion is at <http://www.bailii.org/ew/cases/EWHC/Admin/2006/1038.html>.

1 International Law Institute, The Foundry Building, 1055 Thomas, Jefferson St. NW, Washington, DC 20007 (or contact William Mays, Publications Department, at (202) 247–6006)Google Scholar.

2 U.S. Dep’t of State Media Note No. 2006/444, Publication of Digest of United States Practice in International Law (May 1, 2006), at <http://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2006/65543.htm>.

1 Yahoo! Inc. v. La Ligue Contre le Racisme et L’Antisemitisme, 433 F.3d 1199 (9th Cir. 2006).

2 433F.3d at 1205.

3 Yahoo! Inc. v. La Ligue Contre le Racisme et l’Antisemitisme, 145 F.Supp.2d 1168, 1180(N.D. Cal. 2001).

4 Yahoo!, Inc. v. La Ligue Contre le Racisme et l’Antisemitisme, 169 F.Supp.2d 1181, 1194 (N.D. Cal. 2001).

5 433F.3d at 1201.

1 Pub. L. No. 107–297, 116 Stat. 2322 (2002).

2 Tria §201(a).

3 Id. §201(d)(2)(B)(ii).

4 Rafii v. Islamic Republic of Iran, Civ. No. 01850(CKK), mem. op. at 28–29 (D.D.C. Dec. 2, 2002) (memorandum opinion and order approving default judgment and awarding damages). A subsequent decision of the Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit appears to cast into question the district court’s award of punitive damages. Roeder v. Islamic Republic of Iran, 333 F.3d 228 (D.C. Cir. 2003).

5 Rafii v. Islamic Republic of Iran, Civ. Action No. 01–850 (CKK), mem. op. at 15–18 (D.D.C. Oct. 25,2005) (citations omitted).

6 Id., mem. op. at 18–19 (citations omitted).

7 Glenn, Kessler, Administration Blocks Ex–hostages’ Bid for Damages from Iran, Wash. Post, Mar. 19, 2006, at A1Google Scholar.

1 GA Res. 60/251 (Apr. 3, 2006); see Colum, Lynch, U.N. Rights Council Gets U.S. Support, Wash. Post, Mar. 15, 2006, at A14Google Scholar; Warren, Hoge, As U.S. Dissents, UN Approves a New Council on Rights Abuse, N.Y. Times, Mar. 16, 2006, at A3Google Scholar; Colum, Lynch, U.N. Votes to Replace Rights Panel, Wash. Post, Mar. 16, 2006, at A1Google Scholar.

2 Warren, Hoge, U.S. Isolated in Opposing Plan for a New U.N. Rights Council, N.Y. Times, Mar. 4, 2006, at A4Google Scholar; Warren, Hoge, U.N. Delays Action on Rights Council Opposed by U.S., N.Y. Times, Mar. 11, 2006, at A4Google Scholar; Warren, Hoge, U.S. Plans to Oppose a New U.N. Rights Council, N.Y. Times, Mar. 15, 2006, at A10Google Scholar

3 USUN Press Release No. 51 (06), Explanation of Vote by U.S. Permanent Representative John, R. Bolton, On the Human Rights Council Draft Resolution (Mar. 15, 2006)Google Scholar at <http://www.usunnewyork.usmission.gov/06051.htm>.

4 U.S. Dep’t. of State Press Statement No. 2006/349, The United States Will Not Seek Election to the UN Human Rights Council (Apr. 6, 2006)Google Scholar, at <http://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2006/64182.htm>.

5 The United States and the United Nations: Working Together in the 21st Century, at <http://www.un.org/apps/sg/sgstats.asp?nid=2017>.

6 Warren, Hoge, U.S. Won’t Seek a Seat on the U.N. Rights Council, N.Y. Times, Apr. 7, 2006, at A6Google Scholar; Colum, Lynch, U.S. Will Not Join UN. Rights Council, Wash. Post, Apr. 7, 2006, at A16Google Scholar.

7 Warren, Hoge, New U.N. Rights Group Includes Six Nations with Poor Records, N.Y. Times, May 10, 2006, at A12Google Scholar; Reform at the United Nations: An Election That Fidel Castro Won, Editorial, Wash. Post, May 15, 2006, at A16Google Scholar.

8 Kristen, Silverberg, Assistant Secretary of State, Remarks on the Human Rights Council Elections (May 17, 2006)Google Scholar, at <http://www.state.gov/p/io/rls/rm/66420.htm>.

1 See Warren, Hoge, Bolton Presses for New Method of Calculating Dues at the UN, N.Y. Times, Mar. 29, 2006, at A13Google Scholar.

2 John, R. Bolton Ambassador, Testimony Before the House International Relations Committee (Mar. 16, 2006)Google Scholar, at <http://lists.state.gov/SCRIPTS/WA–USIAINFO.EXE?A2=ind0603c&L=dossdo&P=284>; see Patrick, Goodenough, US Wants China, Others to Pay More to UN, Cybercast News Service (Mar. 28, 2006)Google Scholar, at <http://www.cnsnews.com>.

1 Emily, Wax, Somali Lawlessness Spills into the Sea, Wash. Post, Apr. 2, 2006, at A16Google Scholar.

2 Statement by the President of the Security Council, UN Doc. S/PRST/2006/11 (Mar. 15, 2006), at <http://www.un.org/Docs/sc/unscpresstatements06.htm>.

3 See John, R. Crook, Contemporary Practice of the United States, 100 AJIL 487 (2006)Google Scholar.

4 U.S. Naval Forces Central Command Release No. 043–06, Navy Ships Return Fire on Suspected Pirates (Mar. 18, 2006), at <http://www.cusnc.navy.mil/Media/Release%20pages/Releases/043–06.htm>; see Guy, Gugliotta, Navy Warships Fire on Suspected Pirates off Somalia, Killing One, Wash. Post, Mar. 19, 2006, at A17Google Scholar.

5 US to Help Tackle Somali Pirates, BBC News, Apr. 17, 2006 Google Scholar, at <http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/–/2/hi/africa/4915726.stm>.

1 Transcript of Remarks by USTR Portman, Minister Emerson and Minister Bernier at the Softwood Lumber Agreement Announcement (Apr. 27, 2006), at <http://www.ustr.gov/Document_Library/Transcripts/SectionIndex.html>. The dispute is the subject of a case report by Chi Carmody at 100 AJIL 664 (2006).

2 See, e.g., Doug, Struck, In Ottawa, Rice Seeks to Temper Bitterness About Bush Policies, Wash. Post, Oct. 26, 2005, at A10Google Scholar; Ian, Austen, Extension Sought in Canada Lumber Fight, N.Y. Times, Oct. 29, 2005, at B4Google Scholar; Christopher, J. Chipello, Canada Announces New Aid for Lumber Firms, Mill Towns, Wash. Post, Nov. 25, 2006, at D6Google Scholar; Anna, Morgan, Northern Ire, Canadian Politics Are All About America, Wash. Post, Jan. 8, 2006, at B2Google Scholar. For a Canadian perspective, see In Depth: Softwood Lumber Dispute, CBC News Online (Apr. 28, 2006)Google Scholar, at <http://www.cbc.ca/news/background/softwoodlumber/>.

3 See John, R. Crook, Contemporary Practice of the United States, 100 AJIL 243 (2006)Google Scholar.

4 See John, R. Crook, Contemporary Practice of the United States, 99 AJIL 272 (2005), 100 AJIL 242 (2006)Google Scholar.

5 United States—Final Dumping Determination on Softwood Lumber from Canada, Recourse to Article 21.5 of the DSU by Canada, WTO doc. WT/DS264/RW (Apr. 3, 2006)Google Scholar at <http://www.wto.org/english/tratope/dispue/dispue.htm#dsb>.

6 See, e.g., Ian, Austen & Clifford, Krauss, U.S. Gets Lift in Lumber Fight with Canada, N.Y. Times, Aug. 31, 2005, at C6Google Scholar; Canada’s Case Against U.S. Lumber Tariffs Advances, N.Y. Times, Mar. 18, 2006, at B2Google Scholar.

7 USTR Press Release, US, Canada Reach Agreement on Lumber Dispute (Apr. 27, 2006)Google Scholar, at <http://www.ustr.gov/Document_Library/Press_Releases/SectionIndex.html>.

1 Second Periodic Report of the United States of America to the Committee Against Torture (May 6, 2005), at <http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/45738.htm>. The U.S. reports and related materials are available at <http://www.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cat/cats36.htm>.

2 At <http://www.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cat/cats36.htm>.

3 See Tom, Wright, U.S. Defends Rights Record Before U.N. Panel in Geneva, N.Y. Times, May 6, 2006, at A5Google Scholar; U.S. Defends Treatment of Terror Suspects, Wash. Post, May 6, 2006, at A18; Tom, Wright, U.S. Defends Itself on Inmate Abuse, N.Y. Times, May 9, 2006, at A11Google Scholar; UN. Panel Against Torture Questions U.S. Officials, Wash. Post, May 9, 2006, at A20Google Scholar.

4 John, B. Bellinger III, U.S. Meeting with U.N. Committee Against Torture: Opening Remarks (May 5, 2006)Google Scholar (footnote omitted), at <http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/68557.htm>.

5 Amnesty International, Press Release No. AMR 51/070/2006, US: Government Creating “Climate of Torture” (May 3, 2006)Google Scholar, at <http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGAMR510702006>.

6 Enduring Abuse: Torture and Cruel Treatment by the United States at Home and Abroad (April 2006)Google Scholar, at <http://www.aclu.org/safefree/torture/torture_report.pdf>.

7 Human Rights Watch Supplemental Submission to the Committee Against Torture (n.d.), at <http://hrw.org/english/docs/2006/05/04/usdoml3316.htm>.

8 Conclusions and Recommendations of the Committee Against Torture: United States of America, UN Doc. CAT/C/USA/CO/2 (May 18, 2006), at <http://www.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cat/cats36.htm>; see Tim, Golden, U.S. Should Close Prison in Cuba, U.N. Panel Says, N.Y. Times, May 20, 2006, at A1Google Scholar.

9 Conclusions and Recommendations of the Committee Against Torture: United States of America, supra note 8, at 1–2.

10 Id. at 6.

11 Id.

12 Id. at 4.

13 Id. at 6.

14 At <http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2006/05/20060519.html> (May 19, 2006).

15 John, B. Bellinger III, On–the–Record Briefing on the Committee Against Torture Report (May 19, 2006)Google Scholar, at <http://www.state.gov/s/l/rls/66519.htm>.

16 Id.

1 Interview with Sabine Christiansen of ARD German Television, 42 Weekly Comp. Pres. Doc. 867, 870 (May 15, 2006); see Bush Speaks of Closing Guantanamo Prison, N.Y. Times, May 8, 2006, at A17.

2 The report was submitted by the chair of the United Nations’ Working Group on Arbitrary Detention and by four special rapporteurs (on the independence of judges and lawyers; on torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment; on freedom of religion or belief; and on the right of everyone to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health). Each of the five examined the situation as it related to his or her mandate.

3 UN Comm’n on Human Rights, Situation of Detainees at Guantanamo Bay, UN Doc. E/CN.4/2006/120 (February 15, 2006), at <http://www.ohchr.Org/english/bodies/chr/docs/62chr/E.CN.4.2006.120.pdf>.

4 Id. at 8–9. In particular, the report maintained that the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights applied to U.S. activities at the Guantanamo Bay facility.

5 Id. at 12–13.

6 Id at 13.

7 Id. at 18.

8 Id. at 22 (endnote omitted).

9 Id. at 25 (endnote omitted) (severe suffering is an element of the definition of torture under the Convention Against Torture).

10 Id. at 27.

11 Id. at 31.

12 Id. at 33.

13 Id. at 35–36.

14 See John, R. Crook, Contemporary Practice of the United States, 100 AJIL 239 (2006)Google Scholar.

15 At <http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2006/02/20060216–l.html> (Feb. 16, 2006).

16 Council on Foreign Relations, News Brief: Rumsfeld, at CFR, Outlines Challenge of Hostile Global Media Environment (Feb. 17, 2006), at <http://www.cfr.org/publication/9902/newsbrief.html>.

17 Prepared Remarks by Attorney General Alberto R. Gonzales at the International Institute for Strategic Studies (Mar. 7, 2006), at <http://www.usdoj.gov/ag/speeches/2006/agspeech060307.html>.

18 Reply of the Government of the United States of America to the Report of the Five UNCHR Special Rapporteurs on Detainees in Guantanamo Bay, Cuba at 1 (March 10, 2006), at <www.asil.org/pdfs/ilib0603212.pdf>.

19 Id. at 2.

20 At <http://www.ambafrance–us.org/news/statmnts/2006/levittecnn021906.asp> (Feb. 9, 2006).

21 Guantanamo, Bay, House of Commons Hansard Written Answers for 6 Mar 2006 Google Scholar (pt 3), at <http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200506/cmhansrcl/cm060306/text/60306w03.htm>.

22 Transcript of Archbishop’s Interview with David Frost in Sudan (Mar. 5, 2006), at <http://www.archbishopofcanterbury.org/sermons_speeches/060305.htm>.

23 Alan, Cowell, Briton Wants Guantánamo Closed, N.Y. Times, May 11, 2006, at A7Google Scholar; Kevin, Sullivan, British Attorney General Says Guantanamo ‘Should Close,’ Wash. Post, May 11, 2006, at A21Google Scholar.

24 Guantanamo Bay Conditions Have Improved—Red Cross, Reuters, Apr. 25, 2006, available in Lexis, Mega News Library, Reuters News File Google Scholar.

25 OSCE PA Special Representative Anne–Marie Lizin Visits Guantánamo Detention Facilities (July 14, 2006), at <http://www.oscepa.org/index.aspx?articleid=+546+546> (July 14, 2006).

26 Guantanamo Better Than Belgian Prisons: OSCE Expert, ABC News Online, Mar. 7, 2006 Google Scholar, at <http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200603/sl585574.htm>.The OSCE subsequently issued a press release indicating that the expert’s views were personal and not those of the organization. See OSCE Press Release, OSCE Clarifies News Agency Stories on Visit to Guantanamo (Mar. 9, 2006), at <http://www.osce.org/item/18302.html>.

1 U.S. Dep’t of Defense News Release No. 124–06, Guantanamo Bay Detainee Administrative Review Board Decisions Completed (Feb. 1, 2006), at <http://www.defenselink.mil/releases/2006/nr20060209–12464.html>.

2 John, R. Crook, Contemporary Practice of the United States 100 AJIL 473, 474–75 (2006)Google Scholar.

3 Qassim, v. Bush, 126 S.Ct. 1771 (Apr. 17, 2006)Google Scholar; see Josh, White, Supreme Court Won’t Hear Chinese Detainees’ Case, Wash. Post, Apr. 18, 2006, at A4Google Scholar.

4 White, supra note 3.

5 U.S. Dep’t of State Press Statement No. 2006/465, Release of Five Ethnic Uighurs from Guantanamo (May 5, 2006), at <http://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2006/65935.htm>; see Pete, Yost, Chinese Detainees Released to Albania, Wash. Post, May 6, 2006, at A9Google Scholar; Josh, White & Julie, Tate, 4 Men Cleared of Terrorism Links but Still Detained, Wash. Post, May 20, 2006, at A18Google Scholar.

6 China: Albania Is Asked to Hand Over Uighurs, N.Y. Times, May 9, 2006, at A5Google Scholar.

7 See Steven, R. Weisman, U.S. to Turn Over 16 Saudis from Guantánamo to Riyadh, N.Y. Times, May 18, 2006 Google Scholar, at A6; 15 Detainees Released from Prison in Guantanamo Bay, Wash. Post, May 19, 2006, at A9Google Scholar.

8 Transcript of Prince Saud Al–Faisal Interview with US Print Media (May 18, 2006), at <http://www.saudiembassy.net/2006News/Statements/TransDetail.asp?cIndex=613>.

9 U.S. Dep’t of Defense News Release No. 458–06, Detainee Transfer Announced (May 18, 2006), at <http://www.defenselink.mil/releases/archive.aspx>.

1 For the charges against the ten and for other information on the ten, see <http://www.dod.gov/news/commissions.html>.

2 See Carol, J. Williams, U.S. to Free 141 Terror Suspects, L.A. Times, Apr. 25, 2006, at AlGoogle Scholar.

3 See Jane, Sutton, Lawyer Says Rumsfeld ‘messed up’ Guantanamo Trials, Reuters, Apr. 7, 2006, available in Lexis, Mega News Library, Reuters News File Google Scholar.

4 See John, R. Crook, Contemporary Practice of the United States 100 AJIL 473, 473–74 (2006)Google Scholar.

5 Tim, Golden, Boycott Threat Roils Guantánamo Hearing, N.Y. Times, Apr. 6, 2006, at A12Google Scholar; Canadian Teen Boycotts Trial at Guantanamo Bay, Wash. Post, Apr. 6, 2006, at A26Google Scholar.

6 U.S. Attorney’s Office (Mass.) press release, Canadian National Indicted for Conspiracy to Procure Weapons for Al Qaeda, Kill Americans Overseas (Feb. 8, 2006), at <http://www.usdoj.gov/usao/ma/pa/Feb2006/Khadr–Abdullah–Indictment–pr.html> . The indictment is at <http://news.findlaw.com/hdocs/docs/terrorism/uskhadr20706ind.html>.

7 See The Khadr Family, CBC News Online, Apr. 20, 2006, at <http://www.cbc.ca/news/background/khadr/>.

8 Tim, Golden, Guantánamo Terror Suspect Mocks Tribunal, N.Y. Times, Apr. 7, 2006, at A16Google Scholar. As Golden notes, the “conn” was presumably a misspelling of “con.”

9 See John, R. Contemporary Practice of the United States, 99 AJIL 889 (2005), 100 AJIL215 (2006)Google Scholar.

10 Guantanamo Trial Halted, Wash. Post, May 13, 2006, at A7Google Scholar.

11 David, Morgan, Saudi Boycotts Tribunal, Calls U.S. God’s Enemy, Reuters, Apr. 26, 2006 Google Scholar.

1 Tim, McGirk, One Morning in Haditha. U.S. Marines Killed 15 Iraqi Civilians in Their Homes Last November.Was It Self–Defense, an Accident or Cold–Blooded Revenge? Time, Mar 27, 2006 Google Scholar, at <http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview/0,10987,1174682,00.html>.

2 Ann Scott, Tyson, U.S. Opens Probe into Deaths of 15 Iraqis, Wash.Post, Mar. 17, 2006, at A15Google Scholar; Tony, Perry, Three Marine Commanders Fired in Iraqi Deaths, Wash. Post, Apr. 9, 2006, at A9Google Scholar; 3 Marine Commanders Are Reassigned in Iraq, Wash. Post, Apr. 11, 2006, at A5Google Scholar.

3 Thom, Shanker, Inquiry Implies Civilian Deaths in Iraq Topped Initial Report, N.Y. Times, May 19, 2006, at A6Google Scholar; Ann Scott, Tyson, Death Toll Rises in Haditha Attack, GOP Leader Says, Wash. Post, May 20, 2006, at A17Google Scholar; U.S. Opens Inquiry into Civilian’s Death in a Marine Raid, Wash. Post, May 25, 2006, at A8Google Scholar; Thom, Shanker, Eric, Schmitt, & Richard, A. Oppel Jr., Military Expected to Report Marines Killed Iraqi Civilians, N.Y. Times, May 26, 2006, at A1Google Scholar; Ellen, Knickmeyer, In Haditha, Memories of a Massacre, Wash. Post, May 27, 2006, at A1Google Scholar.

4 U.S. Marine Corps Press Release No. 0525–06–1301, Commandant to Reinforce Standards and Core Values in Visits to Marine Bases (May 25, 2006), at <http://www.usmc.mil/marinelink/mcn2000.nsf/news/>; Thomas, E. Ricks, Top Marine Visits Iraq as Probe of Deaths Widens, Wash. Post, May 26, 2006, at A17Google Scholar.

5 U.S. Marine Corps Press Release No. 0525–06–1301, supra note 4.

1 Tom, Wright, U.S. Defends Itself on Inmate Abuse, N.Y. Times, May 9, 2006, at A1Google Scholar.

2 Eric, Schmitt, Iraq Abuse Trial Is Again Limited to Lower Ranks, N.Y. Times, Mar. 23, 2006, at A1Google Scholar.

3 See Human Rights First, Human Rights Watch, & New York University Center for Human Rights and Global Justice Google Scholar, U.S.: More Than 600 Implicated in Detainee Abuse (Apr. 26, 2006)Google Scholar, at <http://www.hrw.org/english/docs/2006/04/26/usint13268.htm>.

4 Eric, Schmitt, Abuse Charge Set for a U.S. Colonel, N.Y. Times, Apr. 26, 2001, at A1Google Scholar.

5 See Schmitt, supra note 2; John, R. Crook, Contemporary Practice of the United States, 99 AJIL 713 (2005)Google Scholar.

6 Josh, White, Detainee in Photo with Dog Was ‘High–Value’ Suspect, Wash. Post, Mar. 13, 2006, at A3Google Scholar; Few Rules in Use of Abu Ghraib Dogs, an Officer Testifies, N.Y. Times, Mar. 16, 2006, at A17; Josh, White, Officer Says He Wrongly Approved Use of Dogs, Wash. Post, Mar. 16, 2006, at A1Google Scholar; Eric, Schmitt, Army Dog Handler Is Convicted in Detainee Abuse at Abu Ghraib, N.Y. Times, Mar. 22, 2006, at A1Google Scholar; Josh, White, Dog Handler Found Guilty of Abu Ghraib Abuse, Wash. Post, Mar. 22, 2006, at A8Google Scholar; Schmitt, supra note 2; The Joy of Being Blameless, Editorial, N.Y. Times, Mar. 23, 2006, at A24; Josh, White, Memo Shows Officer’s Shift on Use of Dogs, Wash. Post, Apr. 15, 2006, at A11Google Scholar.

7 See John, R. Crook, Contemporary Practice of the United States, 99 AJIL 236, 239 (2005)Google Scholar.

8 Josh, White, Top Officer Ordered to Testify on Abuse, Wash. Post, Apr. 9, 2006, at A14Google Scholar; Eric, Schmm, Judge Orders a Top Officer to Attend Abuse Trial, N.Y. Times, Apr. 19, 2006, at A16Google Scholar; Jeffrey Smith, R. & Josh, White, Abuse Trial Revives Old Questions, Wash. Post, May 22, 2006, at A10Google Scholar; Neil, A. Lewis, Court in Prisoner Abuse Case Hears Testimony of General, Wash. Post, May 25, 2006, at A18Google Scholar; General Denies Suggesting Dog Tactic, Wash. Post, May 25, 2006, at A15Google Scholar.

9 Alabama: Army Punishes Abu Ghraib Officer, N.Y. Times, Mar. 11, 2006, at A12Google Scholar; Army Rebukes Congressional Aide for Abu Ghraib Role, Wash. Post, Mar. 11, 2006, at A20Google Scholar.

1 See John, R. Crook, Contemporary Practice of the United States, 100 AJIL 480 (2006)Google Scholar; Elaine, Sciolino, Threats Rattle at Nuclear Meeting on Iran, N.Y. Times, Mar. 9, 2006, at A6Google Scholar; Molly, Moore & Colum, Lynch, Iran Threatens U.S. with ‘Harm and Pain’, Wash. Post, Mar. 9, 2006, at A12Google Scholar; Warren, Hoge, U.N. Council to Chastise Iran but May Sidestep Sanctions, N.Y. Times, Mar. 10, 2006, at A6Google Scholar; Colum, Lynch, U.S. Presses China and Russia for U.N. Council Action on Iran, Wash. Post. Mar. 11, 2006, at A7Google Scholar; Colum, Lynch, No Support from China or Russia on Iran Measure, Wash. Post, Mar. 14, 2006, at A16Google Scholar; Warren, Hoge, Text on Iran’s Nuclear Work Is Under Study by U.N. Council, N.Y. Times, Mar. 15, 2006, at A8Google Scholar: Colum, Lynch, Top U.N. Members to Try to Break Stalemate on Iran, Mar. 20, 2006, at A9Google Scholar; Colum, Lynch, Security Council Fails to Reach Accord on Iran, Wash. Post, Mar. 21, 2006, at A12Google Scholar; Warren, Hoge, Security Council Is Stalled over Iran’s Nuclear Program, N.Y. Times, Mar. 22, 2006, at A6Google Scholar; Warren, Hoge, New U.N. Draft on Iran Softens Condemnation, N.Y. Times, Mar. 24, 2006, at A13Google Scholar.

2 Statement by the President of the Security Council, UN Doc. S/PRST/2006/15 (Mar. 29, 2006), at <http://www.un.org/Docs/sc/unscpresstatements06.htm>; see Warren, Hoge, U.N. Council Urges Iran to Halt Atom Activity, N.Y. Times, Mar. 30, 2006, at A6Google Scholar; Colum, Lynch, Security Council Pressures Tehran, Wash. Post, Mar. 30, 2006, at A1Google Scholar.

3 Uranium enriched to a level of 4 per cent Uranium–235 can fuel many reactors. Uranium must be enriched to well over 80 percent in order to be used in nuclear weapons. See William, J. Broad & David, E. Sanger, A Crisis Brews, Iran Hits Bumps on Atomic Path, N.Y. Times, Mar. 5, 2006 Google Scholar, at A1.

4 The report was not officially released, but its contents were widely disseminated. The IAEA’s press release announcing it is at <http://www.iaea.org/NewsCenter/News/2006/iranreport_sg.html>. An April 29 BBC report containing excerpts from the report is at <http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4956882.stm>.

5 See Joel, Brinkley, Rice Floats the Idea of U.N. Sanctions on Iran, but China and Russia Reject It, N.Y. Times, Mar. 31, 2006, at A8Google Scholar; Glenn, Kessler, Iran Warned, but Russia, China Dissent on Action, Wash. Post, Mar. 31, 2006 at A16Google Scholar; A Faltering Coalition, Editorial, Wash. Post, Apr. 2, 2006, at B6Google Scholar; Nazila, Fathi & David, Sanger, Meeting Yields No Progress on Curbing Iran Nuclear Bid, N.Y. Times, Apr. 14, 2006, at A14Google Scholar; Peter, Finn, Envoys Remain Split on Plan Against Iran, Wash. Post, Apr. 20, 2006, at A19Google Scholar; Bradley, Graham, Russia Rejects U.S. Appeal on Iran, Wash. Post, Apr. 22, 2006, at A17Google Scholar.

6 See Elaine, Sciolino, Showdown at UN? Iran Seems Calm, N.Y. Times, Mar. 14, 2006, at A8Google Scholar; Peter, Baker, Iran’s Defiance Narrows U.S. Options for Response, Wash. Post, Apr. 13, 2006, at A18Google Scholar; David, E. Sanger & Nazila, Fathi, Iran Is Described as Defiant On 2nd Nuclear Program, N.Y. Times, Apr. 25, 2006, at A6Google Scholar; Christine, Hauser, Iran Says It Will Spurn Any UN Nuclear Edict, N.Y. Times, May 8, 2006, at A8Google Scholar.

1 Elisabeth, Bumiller & Somini, Sengupta, Bush and India Reach Pact That Allows Nuclear Sales, N.Y. Times, Mar. 3, 2006, at A1Google Scholar; Jim, VandeHei & Dafna, Linzer, U.S., India Reach Deal on Nuclear Cooperation, Wash. Post, Mar. 3, 2006, at A1Google Scholar.

2 See John, R. Crook, Contemporary Practice of the United States, 99 AJIL 912 (2005)Google Scholar.

3 See Dafna, Linzer, White House Asks Congress to Alter Nuclear Aid law, Wash. Post, Mar. 17, 2006, at A13Google Scholar.

4 See Steven, R. Weisman, Dissenting on Atomic Deal, N.Y. Times, Mar. 3, 2006, at A10Google Scholar; Glenn, Kessler, India Nuclear Deal May Face Hard Sell, Wash. Post, Mar. 3, 2006, at A1Google Scholar; Mr. Bush’s Asian Road Trip, Editorial, N.Y. Times, Mar. 7, 2006, at A24Google Scholar; Joel, Brinkley, Many in Congress Want to Change Nuclear Deal with India, N.Y. Times, Mar. 17, 2006, at A8Google Scholar; Glenn, Kessler, Nunn Urges Congress to Set Conditions on U.S.–India Nuclear Pact, Wash. Post, Mar. 21, 2006, at A9Google Scholar; Jimmy, Carter, A Dangerous Deal with India, Wash. Post, Mar. 29, 2006, at A19Google Scholar; Dafna, Linzer, Rice to Lay Out India–U.S. Nuclear Deal Before Some Skeptical Lawmakers, Wash. Post, Apr. 5, 2006, at A17Google Scholar; Glenn, Kessler, Rice Appeals for Nuclear Deal for India, Wash. Post, Apr. 6, 2006, at A24Google Scholar.

5 Andrew, K. Semmel, Deputy Asst. Secretary, Nuclear Nonproliferation Policy and Negotiations, U.S.–India Civil Nuclear Cooperation Initiative (May 6, 2006)Google Scholar, at <http://www.state.gov/t/isn/rls/rm/66415.htm>.

1 U.S. Dep’t of State Media Note 2005/1108, Sixth Meeting of States Parties to the Ottawa Convention Ban on Anti–personnel Landmines (Nov. 28, 2005), at <www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2005/57365.htm>.

2 U.S. Dep’t of State Media Note 2005/24, U.S. Bans Non–detectable Landmines (Jan. 3, 2005), at <http://www.state.gov/r/pa/pts/ps/2005/40193.htm>.

1 Ambassador Eric, Javits, U.S. Representative to the OPCW, Statement Concerning Request to Extend the United States’ Destruction Deadline Under the Chemical Weapons Convention (Apr. 20, 2006)Google Scholar, at <http://www.state.gov/t/isn/rls/rm/64878.htm>.

1 The U.S. proposal is at <http://www.state.gov/t/isn/rls/other/66902.htm>.

2 See Stephen, G. Rademaker, Acting Assistant Secretary, International Security and Nonproliferation, Rising to the Challenge of Effective Multilateralism (May 18, 2006)Google Scholar, at <http://www.state.gov/t/isn/rls/rm/66419.htm>; U.S. Proposes New Nuclear Pact, N.Y. Times, May 19, 2006, at A14Google Scholar

3 USA: White Paper on a Fissile Material Cutoff Treaty—Conference on Disarmament (May 18, 2006), at <http://www.state.gov/t/isn/rls/other/66901.htm>.

1 Continued Dumping and Subsidy Offset Act of 2000, Pub. L. No. 106–387, 19 U.S.C. §l675c.

2 USTR press release, Congress Takes Important Action: Byrd Repeal Brings US into Compliance with WTO Ruling (Feb. 1, 2006), at <http://www.ustr.gov/DocumentLibrary/PressReleases/2006/SectionIndex.html>.

3 The Byrd Amendment was repealed by Sec. 7601 of Pub. L. No. 109–171, the Deficit Reduction Act of 2005.

4 See John, R. Crook, Contemporary Practice of the United States, 100 AJIL 463 (2006)Google Scholar.

5 Top US official Denies ‘Torture,’ BBC News, Mar. 7, 2006, at <http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/world/americas/4782594.stm>.

6 In an April 2006 lecture, former British Defence Minister John Reid called for a reexamination of international humanitarian law, including the Geneva Conventions, in light of contemporary threats involving the spread of weapons of mass destruction, terrorists, and nonstate actors. John, Reid, Twenty–first Century Warfare—Twentieth Century Rules, Rusi Journal, June 2006, at 14,Google Scholar available at <http://www.rusi.org/downloads/assets/Reid.pdf>.

7 David, Stout, American Is Sentenced to 30 Years in Terror Case, N.Y. Times, Mar. 30, 2006, at A16Google Scholar; Carlyle, Murphy, Man Given 30 Years in Plot Against Bush, Wash. Post, Mar. 30, 2006, at A3Google Scholar; John, R. Crook, Contemporary Practice of the United States, 99 AJIL 718 (2005), 100 AJIL 244 (2006)Google Scholar.

8 United States v. Reynolds, 345 U.S. 1, 7–8 (1953).

9 El–Masri v. Tenet, No. 1:05cv1417 (E.D. Va. May 12, 2006) (order granting U.S. motion to dismiss).

10 Neil, A. Lewis, U.S., Citing State Secrets, Challenges Detainee Suit, N.Y. Times, May 13, 2006, at A22Google Scholar; Dana, Priest, Secrecy Privilege Invoked in Fighting Ex–detainee’s Lawsuit, Wash. Post, May 13, 2006, at A3Google Scholar; Neil, A. Lewis, Federal Judge Dismisses Lawsuit by Man Held in Terror Program, N.Y. Times, May 19, 2006, at A20Google Scholar; Jerry, Markon, Lawsuit Against CIA Is Dismissed, Wash. Post, May 19, 2006, at A13Google Scholar.

11 See John, R. Crook, Contemporary Practice of the United States, 100 AJIL 236 (2006)Google Scholar.

12 El–Masri v. Tenet, slip op. at 16.