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The Teutonic Origins of Representative Government*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 September 2013

Charles A. Beard
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Extract

Representative government, as every student of political science well knows, is now under fire. While it is not necessary to take too seriously the statements made by delirious purveyors of new remedies for old discontents, we cannot fail to take note of the fact that a strong tide of opinion has set in against this famous institution of democracy. On the continent of Europe, dictators either reject it entirely or seek to reduce it to purely advisory functions. In England, rumblings are heard to the effect that the Mother of Parliaments is not well herself; propositions for drastic changes come from members of the House of Commons; and if economic depression and unemployment continue for another ten years it is highly probable that some radical experiments will be made in the direction of concentrating economic powers. The United States is not without its troubles. When in the summer of 1931, with the deepening of the industrial crisis, it was urged that a special session of Congress be called to deal with national distress, President Hoover rather tartly rejected the petition and indicated that our great representative body was more likely to retard than to help “the process of recovery.”

Type
Research Article
Information
American Political Science Review , Volume 26 , Issue 1 , February 1932 , pp. 28 - 44
Copyright
Copyright © American Political Science Association 1932

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References

1 Howard, G. E., An Introduction to the Local Constitutional History of the United States, 259 (Johns Hopkins University Studies)Google Scholar.

2 Adams, H. (and others), Essays in Anglo-Saxon Law, 1Google Scholar.

3 History of the Anglo-Saxons, xxiii.

4 Select Charters, 358.

5 The Making of England, 188.

6 Origin and Growth of the English Constitution, I, 14Google Scholar.

7 American Political Ideas, 71.

8 An Introduction to the Local Constitutional History of the United States, 259.

9 Civilization During the Middle Ages, 96-97.

10 Constitutional History of England (1897 ed.), I, 97Google Scholar.

11 Const. Hist., I, 115Google Scholar.

12 It may be a matter of historical interest to the reader to learn that the pages which follow were written in 1899 and have remained unpublished until the present moment. Since they were originally drafted, the Teutonic theory has been challenged by a number of scholars, notably, Pollard (Evolution of Parliament) and Pasquet (Origin of the Bouse of Commons); but none of them makes a searching inquiry into the ultimate sources upon which the hypothesis was built.

13 Stubbs, , Select Charters, 104Google Scholar.

14 Debet autem scyresmot et burgemot bis, hundreta vel wapentagia duodecies in anno congregari, et sex diebus antea submoniri, nisi publicum commodum vel regis dominica necessitas terminum praeveniat. Select Charters, 105.

15 Debent autem … ad singulos menses, i.e., per annum duodecies, congregari hundreta, comitatus bis, si non sit opus amplius; et omnis homo rectum faciat alteri ad rectum terminum, et omnis causa finem habeat, et submoneatur comitatus vii dies antea. Thorpe, , Ancient Laws and Institutes, I, 549Google Scholar.

16 Pollock, and Maitland, , History of English Law (1898), I, 546, 547Google Scholar.

17 Si quis baronum regis vel aliorum comitatui secundum legem interfuerit, totam terram quam illic in dominio suo habet acquietare poterit. Eodem modo est si dapifer ejus legitime fuerit. Si uterque necessario desit, praepositus et sacerdos et quatuor de melioribus villae assint pro omnibus qui nominatim non erunt ad placitum submoniti. Select Charters, 105.

18 Const. Hist., I, 128Google Scholar.

19 Si vicecomes evocat eos ad sciremot, meliores ex eis, vi ant vii, vadunt cum eo. Qui vocatus non vadit dat ii solidos aut unum bovem regi, et qui de hundret remanet tantundem persolvit. Domesday Boole, Archenefield, I, 179Google Scholar.

20 Qui equum habebat ter in anno pergebat cum vicecomite ad placita et ad hundret. Ibid.

21 Si de hundredo remanebat aut non ibat ad placitum ubi praepositus jubebat, per v solidos emendabat. Ibid., I, 269.

22 Si fuerint praemoniti ut conveniant ad sciram, ibunt usque ad Pinnedennam, non longius. Ibid., I, 1.

23 Codex Diplomaticus, dccxxxi; Thorpe, , Diplomatarium, p. 308Google Scholar. There is another writ in which the king makes known to “eallum mannum” that he has granted certain freedom. Thorpe, , Diplomatarium,, 307Google Scholar.

24 Codex Diplomaticus, dccxxxii.

25 Seebohm, , Village Community, 183–186Google Scholar.

26 D. B., 179: Hae consuetudines erant Walensium, T. R. E.

27 D. B., 181: In Archeneneld the king has 100 men less 4, who with their men have 73 teams and give custom of 41 sextars of honey and 20 shillings instead of the sheep they used to give, and 10 shillings for fumagium; nor do they give geld or other custom except that they march in the king's army if it is so ordered to them. Seebohm, 185. See the customs, T. E. E., D. B. 179.

28 Thorpe, , Diplomatarium, 336Google Scholar.

29 Pollock, and Maitland, , History of English Law, I, 42Google Scholar.

30 Maitland, , Domesday and Beyond, 147Google Scholar.

31 Const. Hist., I, 128Google Scholar.

32 Pollock and Maitland, I, 66.

33 Ibid., I, 93. Brunner, , Entstehung der Schwurgerichte, 396Google Scholar: “Nach der normannischen Eroberung wurde der angelsäehsische Rechtsgang nicht sowohl durch die Gesetzgebung als durch die Anwendung des normannisehen Amtsrechts allmählich normannisiert. Indem das Königthum die ausgedehnten processualen Machtmittel die ihm das fränkischnormannische Eecht in die Hände legte auf dem Boden Englands in durchgreifender Weise zur Geltung brachte wurden des Königs Recht und die Curia Regis der Ausgangspunct für eine vollständige Umgestaltung des Gerichtsverfahrens.” Glasson, , La Grande Encyclopédie, VII, 1053Google Scholar. “Les Normands importerent tout natur-ellement dans la Grande-Bretagne ces formes [inquisitio] de procedure lorsqu'ils flrent la conquête de l'Angleterre sur les Saxons.” See also Brunner, , Forschungen zur Geschichte des deutschen und fränzosischen Rechts, 246Google Scholar.

34 Pollock and Maitland, I, 94.

35 See Brunner, , Forschungen, 88–247Google Scholar.

36 “In schroffen Gegensatz zum Wesen des altdeutschen Beweissystems stellt sich ein Beweismittel, welches in karolingischer Zeit auftaucht und inquisitio genannt wird.” Ibid., 91.

37 Brunner, , Schwurgerichte, 98Google Scholar. “Im Namen des Königs per bannum dominicum, per bannum regis werden die Umsassen gezwungen zur inquisitio zu erscheinen.” Forschungen, 191: “So wie alles Inquisitionsrecht geht auch alle Inquisitionsgewalt vom König aus. Der Inquisitionsbeweis wird bei Königsbann, ex regia auctoritate, geführt, und daher inquisitio regalis, imperials genannt.”

38 Capitulare Regum Francorum, Boretius, I, Part 2, 277.

39 Stubbs, , Const. Hist., I, 656Google Scholar; Brunner, , Schwurgerichte, 87Google Scholar; Pollock and Maitland, I, 141.

40 Brunner, , Forschungen, 231Google Scholar.

41 Brunner, , Schwurgerichte, 108Google Scholar: “Er dürfte nämlich nur Nachbarn, Umsassen, homines infra patria habitantes, pagenses, circavicini, homines ibi commantes, homines ejusdem territorii, homines illa vicinia, in eo comitatu, in illis vicinioribus locis consistentes zu Geschwornen auswählen. Die inquisitio soll ausgeführt werden adhibitis his quibus inter pagenses fides habebatur, per veraces et idoneos homines et quorum testi-monium dignoscetur esse probabile, per bonos et veraces et nobiles homines ibi commantes. …”

42 “Die Inquisitionsmandate sprechen ganz allgemein dass die pagenses, homines circamantes, &c. zu inquirieren seien.” Schwurgerichte, 111–112Google Scholar.

43 Maitland, , Doomsday Book and Beyond, 9Google Scholar.

44 Inquisitio Eliensis, Domesday, III, 497Google Scholar.

45 Select Charters, 143. “… per singulos comitatitbus inquiratur, et per singulos hundredos per xii legaliores homines de hundredo et per iv legaliores homines de qualibet villata.”

46 Pollock and Maitland, I, 137.

47 Select Charters, 151. “… per sacramentum quatuor hominum de unaquaque villa hundredi.”

48 Select Charters, 160. “… Et si aliquis juxta conscientam illorum minus dederit quam debuerit, eligentur de parochia quatuor vel sex viri legitimi, qui jurati dicant quantitatem illam quam ille debuisset dixisse.” The verb eligantur will be discussed later.

49 Select Charters, 257. Eog. Hoveden, iv, 46. “… quinque solidos de auxilio, ad quos colligendos misit idem rex per singulos comitatus Angliae unum clericum et unum militem, qui cum vicecomite comitatus ad quem mittebantur et legalibus militibus ad hoc electis, praestito juramento quod fideliter exsequerentur negotium regis, fecerunt venire coram se senescallos baronum illius comitatus, et de qualibet villa dominum vel baillivum villae et praepositum cum quatuor legalibus hominibus villae, sive liberis sive rusticis; et duos milites legaliores de hundredo. … Statutum erat, quod quicunque rusticus convictus fuisset de perjurio daret domino meliorem bovem de caruca sua, et insuper responderet de proprio ad opus domini regis tantum pecuniae quantum fuisset declaratum per suum perjurium fuisse celatum.”

50 Select Charters, 258. “Praedictis igitur justiciariis forestarum itinerantibus preaceptum est ex parte regis, ut per singulos comitatus per quos ipsi ituri essent, convenirent coram eis, ad placita forestae, archiepiscopi, … et de unaquaque villa praepositus et quatuor homines ad audienda praecepta regis.” Bog. Hoveden, iv, 63.

51 Select Charters, 276. They are summoned “ut per illos et alios … de damnis singulorum episcoporum et ablatis certitudinem inquireret.”

52 Const. Hist., I, 566Google Scholar.

53 Select Charters, 360. “… quod videlicet de qualibet villa integra eligantur quatuor de melioribus et legalioribus hominibus una cum praepositis singularum villarum per quorum sacramentum quadragesima pars … taxetur et assideatur super singulos, in praesentia militum assessorum. …”

54 Eligere meant to choose, to select, to commission, to assign. See Parl. Writs, I, 390Google Scholar, and de Coulanges, Fustel, Les Transformations de la Royauté pendant l'Époque Carolingienne, 445–447Google Scholar.

55 Boretius, II, part i, 15. “ … Eligantur a missis nostris ad inquisitiones faciendas.”

56 Select Charters, 366. The four men originally chosen were not permitted to assess their own property. “Alii quatuor homines de singulis villis ad hoc electi per milites praedictos jurabunt de catallis praedictorum priorum quatuor. …”

57 Rot. Hund., I, 5Google Scholar. “Item homines dictae ville consueverunt eligere sibi constabular' communi assensu.…”

58 Select Charters, 367. “Et ipsi quatuor milites et clericus praedictus eligi facient quatuor de legalioribu hominibus de singulis villis. …”

59 Select Charters, 374.

60 History of English Law, I, 532–556Google Scholar.

61 Pollock and Maitland, I, 100.

62 Hallam, , Middle Ages, 77Google Scholar. “I quote the latter (L. H. P.) freely as Anglo-Saxon, though posterior to the Conquest; their spirit being perfectly of the former period.”

63 Pollock and Maitland, I, 79.

64 Brunner, , Schwurgerichte, 396Google Scholar.

65 Pollock and Maitland, I, 94.

66 English Hist. Rev., III, 417Google Scholar. History of English Law, I, 532–556Google Scholar.

67 Rot. Hund., I, 455Google Scholar. “Quodam tenementum quinquies viginto acrarum terrae in Ketleston de quo debibatur una secta ad hundred. … ” Ibid., I, 6. “Dicunt quod dominus Rex Johannes contulit illud manerium Willelmo de Bokland in libertate, nullum penitus servicium domino Regi faciendum nisi tantum que dominus veniat coram justiciariis iterantibus in primo eorum adventu at quatuor homines cum praeposito.”

68 Pollock and Maitland, I, 537.

69 Section 24. Select Charters, 385.

70 Rot. Hund., I, 180, 154, 155et passimGoogle Scholar.

71 D. B., I, 269. Select Charters, 84.

72 Pollock and Maitland, I, 559.

73 Ibid., I, 559. Rot. Hund., I, 55Google Scholar.

74 Select Charters, 358. The Pipe, Plea, and Hundred Rolls tell us in no uncertain manner why the reeve and four men were needed at these courts. Madox, , Hist. Exchequer, I, 541–568Google Scholar. The vill as a communitas was growing in importance during this period. See Pollock and Maitland, I, 605. See also Select Pleas of the Crown, Introduction.

75 Rotuli Litterarum Clausarum, I, 51Google Scholar. See also Gross, Introduction to Coroners' Rolls.

76 Pollock ana Maitland, I, 688.

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