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Unfinished Business: Public Works in Cuba, 1898-1902

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 December 2015

James H. Hitchman
James H. Hitchman*
Affiliation:
Western Washington State College, Bellingham, Washington
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Extract

The United States Military Government built a significant amount of public works in Cuba after the Spanish-American War. Under the direction of the military governor, General Leonard Wood, a large proportion of the insular budget was expended on building roads, bridges, wharves, cleaning and paving streets, purifying water, extinguishing yellow fever, disposing of refuse, and establishing charitable institutions. Of the roughly $55 million expended by the Military Government, over $22 million was spent on varied public works. While the political, diplomatic, economic, legal and educational aspects of the Military Government of Cuba have been treated elsewhere, public works have merely been mentioned. The subject was considered so important by the Military Government and was so vital to Cuba that it warrants special treatment. A description of the conditions in Cuba and the subsequent public works program will indicate the value of the work in the efforts of the Cubans and Americans to build a lasting republic.

Type
Research Article
Information
The Americas , Volume 31 , Issue 3 , January 1975 , pp. 335 - 359
Copyright
Copyright © Academy of American Franciscan History 1975

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References

1 The title refers both to the unfinished business of the author who neglected this subject in Leonard Wood and Cuban Independence 1898–1902 (The Hague: Nijhoff, 1971) and to the fact that the public works started by the Military Government generally were allowed to languish after the commencement of the Cuban Republic. The assistance of Mrs. Ann Drake, Mr. Eugene Hoerauf, and Mr. Raymond McInnis, is appreciated.

2 Quarantine, $694,024.81; Public Buildings, Works, Ports, Harbors, $5,833,607.90; Júcaro and San Fernando Railroad, $57,338.51; Barracks and Quarters, $2,525,483.78; Charities and Hospitals, $4,124,986.60; Sanitation, $9,706,258.20. The Public Works and Sanitation categories alone added up to more than $15.5 million. Wood, Leonard, Civil Report, 1902, 1, 196.Google Scholar

3 See the following books: Thomas, Hugh, Cuba, The Pursuit of Freedom (New York: Harper and Row, 1971)Google Scholar; Healy, David, The United States in Cuba, 1898–1902 (Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin, 1963)Google Scholar; Fitzgibbon, R.H., Cuba and the United States, 1900–1935 (Menasha: Banta, 1935)Google Scholar; Chapman, Charles, A History of the Cuban Republic (New York: MacMillan, 1927)Google Scholar; Vilá, Herminio Portell, Cuba en sus relaciones con los Estados Unidos y España, 4 vols. (Havana: Jesus Montero, 1941)Google Scholar; Ortiz, Rafael Martínez, Cuba: los primeros años de la independencia, 2 vols., 3rd ed. (Paris: “Le Livre Libre,” 1929)Google Scholar; Guerra Sánchez, R., et al., Historia de la nación cubana, 10 vols., (Havana: editorial historia de la nacion cubana, 1952).Google Scholar

4 Porter, R.P., Industrial Cuba (New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1899), 110–111.Google Scholar In 1898, Porter and Colonel George E. Waring visited Cuba and made recommendations to President William McKinley regarding tariffs and sanitation. Waring died of fever in Cuba. Wood, , Civil Report, 1902, 5 “Report of 1st Lt. W.J. Barden,” 37.Google Scholar

5 Porter, , Industrial Cuba, 110–118.Google Scholar

6 Wood, , Civil Repon, 1902, 1, 199 Google Scholar; 1901, I, 37–38.

7 Hitchman, Leonard Wood and Cuban Independence, chs. 3-5.

8 Wood, , Civil Report, 1900, 2, part 3, “Report of Maj. W. M. Black,” 1–2 Google Scholar; II, part 1, “Report of Secretary of Public Works,” 1–5; 1902, V, “Barden Report,” 3–5.

9 Ibid.

10 Still, costs were often high because of the scarcity of materials and the difficult ter-rain. “Barden Report,” 1902, 5–6; Dec. 1901, 13–15; U.S. Congress, Senate, 58th Congress, 2nd Sess., doc. 312, pp. 30–31; U.S. Congress, House, 57th Cong., 1st Sess., doc. 2, appendix I, p. 315; Wood, , Civil Report, 1902, 1, 5 Google Scholar; 1900, I, 93–95; U.S. War Dept., Bureau of Insular Affairs, The Establishment of Free Government in Cuba (Washington: GPO, 1904); Porter, R.P., Report on the Commercial and Industrial Condition of Cuba (Washington: GPO, 1898), 33.Google Scholar Black complained about the costly and complicated accounting methods, “Black Report,” Dec. 1900, 3,107,176,196.

11 “Black Report,” June, 1900, 158–160, 183; “Villalón Report,” 1900, 2; “Barden Re-port,” 1902, 6. Some Cuban prices, which Americans tried to reduce were as follows: Spanish roof tile, $35 per 1000; Portland cement, $4.25 per barrel; Cuban brick, $19 per 1000. Prices for plumbing material were cheaper in Havana than New York. Examples of the cost of work were as follows: brick masonry laid in Cuban cement, $15 per cubic yard; tile roofing complete, $52 per 100 sq. ft.; ordinary carpenter work, from $40 per 1000 ft.

12 Wood, , Civil Report, 1900, 1, 166.Google Scholar

13 Porter, , Industrial Cuba, 351 ff.Google Scholar

14 Wood, , Civil Report, 1901, 1, 37–38.Google Scholar

15 Ibid., 1900,I,169; 1902,I,199; “Villalón Report,” 1900,8.

16 Wood, , Civil Report, 1901, 1, 38 Google Scholar; “Villalón Report,” 1901, 5.

17 “Barden Report,” 1901,15.

18 Wood, , Civil Report, 1900, I, 168–69Google Scholar; “Villalón Report,” 1900, 4–5, 8, 11.

19 “Villalón Report,” 1900, 8–9, 13, 151 ff.

20 Ibid., 1901,10–13,17.

21 Ibid., 1902, 4, 10; 1900, 146 ff. The 80 meter steel bridge over the Damuji River at Roxas cost $28,600. It cost about as much to repair a road as to build it new, $7.50 to $10 per sq. meter. New roads: Matanzas, 11 km; Santa Clara, 26; Puerto Principe, 10; Santiago, 11,5; Pinar del Río, 14.3; Havana, 26.

22 Ibid., 1900,171,91 ff.

23 Ibid., 129 ff.; Wood, , Cvili Report, 1900, 1, 166–167.Google Scholar Lighterage fees were $1.50 per ton, 2–3 times wharfage.

24 Ibid.

25 “Villalón Report,” 1902, 2226. The Dept. of Public Works also built a school of arts and trades and the National Academy of Arts and Sciences in Havana.

26 Wood, , Civil Report, 1901, 1, 38.Google Scholar

27 “Hodges Report,” June 1901, 3, 5–6; “Black Report,” June 1900,1–3.

28 “Black Report,” June 1900,3.

29 Ibid., 10–24. Belgian block was 6ʺ square on top, Boston block, 15ʺ square. In 1900, 21.64% of Havana’s streets were of Belgian block, 55.70 of macadem, 19.23 unpaved, the rest assorted pavements.

30 Ibid., “Barden Report,” 1901, 120. Cost plus 25% would put the job at $10,511,751.97 and McGiveney and Rokeby bid $10,649,626.17. Dady’s final bid was $11,440,000. “Barden Report,” 1902, 13.

31 “Black Report,” June 1900, 13–14.

32 Ibid., 14–22.

33 “Barden Report,” 1902, 9.

34 Ibid., 11–12; “Black Report,” 1900, 15.

35 “Black Report,” Dec. 1900, 10, 146–147. The Vento plant employed two Americans and 85 Cubans.

36 Ibid., 10–12; “Barden Report,” 1902, 12.

37 “Black Report,” 25 ff.; “Barden Report,” 1902, 13–14.

38 “Black Report,” 1900, 160–162. Another popular project was the beautification of the Prado.

39 “Barden Report,” 1902, 18; “Black Report,” Dec. 1900, 27–29, 150–151. A man could sweep from two to 500 square meters per day. Costs were reduced from 29 cents to 17 cents per 1000 sq. meters through efficiency.

40 “Barden Report,” 1902, 20–21. The cost per ton for disposal was 32 cents, reduced to 21 cents by income from sale of manure, rags, paper, etc. The cost of refuse collection dropped from $2.16 to $1.41 per ton.

41 Ibid., 21–22. Gardeners sold the vegetables and pocketed the profits.

42 Ibid., 24, 36; “Black Report,” Dec. 1900, 90, 109–124, 151, 173. The average daily cost for sprinkling 1000 sq. meters was 2.8 cents.

43 “Barden Report,” 1902, 25–26.

44 Ibid., 27; “Black Report,” Dec. 1900, 43, 110.

45 “Barden Report,” 1902, 30–32; “Black Report,” Dec. 1900, 50–51,83, 111.

46 “Barden Report,” 1902, 31–34.

47 Ibid., 35–36.

48 Ibid., 37–39. A typical Havana house was built around three sides of an archway or patio, with very thick walls of porous limestone. The first floor was of tile or cement, placed on the damp ground. Usually only one story in height, the house had a flat roof of tile on wood beams with lime mortar. It was damp below and leaked above, but kept out heat.

49 Ibid., 39,42; “Report of G.W. Armitage,” 1902, 311 ff. 267 ff.

50 “Barden Report,” 1902, 43–44.

51 “Black Report,” Dec. 1900, 51, 91–109, 179; “Hodges Report,” Dec. 1901, 4; Ibid., 1902, 1–8; Wood, , Civil Report, 1902, 5. Brown, Harriet Conor, “Report of Mineral Resources of Cuba,” passim.Google Scholar The Military Government also worked on topographical and reconnaissance maps of Cuba and asked the U.S. Geological Survey to study the mineral resources. The maps were never finished. The report revealed iron ores, manganese, copper, coal, etc. All materials were filed for both the U.S. and Cuban governments.

62 Wood, , Civil Report, 1, 1902, 181–184, VI, 24–25.Google Scholar

53 “Hodges Report,” 1902, 27–30.

54 Ibid., 31–6.

55 Ibid., 33, 35, 40.

56 Ibid., June 1901, “Rockenbach Report,” 92–128.

57 Ibid., Dec. 1901; “Rockenbach Report,” 85.

58 Wood, , Civil Report, 1902, 160–166.Google ScholarPubMed One of the reasons for focus on yellow fever and malaria was that they killed so many Americans.

59 Ibid., 162–163.

60 Ibid., “Report of William C. Gorgas,” 3–6; 1900, “Gorgas Report,” 227–241, 35–50; 1901, “Gorgas Report,” 3–6, 45. The fumigation required thousands of house visits and hundreds of ditches cleaned all over the city, though larvae were found in only 411 of 17,000 houses.

61 “Gorgas Report,” 1900, 40, 241, 297–298; 1901, 8, 40. Gorgas’ department had 373 employees and spent $22,000 per month. It should be noted that heart disease killed 443 in Havana in 1900, pneumonia 319, meningitis, 395; diarrhea and enteritis 506—all more than yellow fever. There were many deaths due to infantile disorders as well. There was no mention of venereal disease or deaths at childbirth.

62 Gorgas Report,” 1902, 9–10, 12.

63 Ibid., 219.

64 Ibid., 129; 1901, 31; Wood, , Civil Report, 1900,” Report of Surgeon Valery Havard,” 314–315.Google Scholar

65 “Gorgas Report,” 1900, 227, 34. Havana’s new state of health was also protected by the quarantine administration of the U.S. Marine Hospital service in key Cuban ports, up to 1902.

66 Ibid., 1902,8; Wood, , Civil Report, 1902, 166.Google ScholarPubMed

67 Wood, , Civil Report, 1902, 168–169 Google ScholarPubMed; “Kean Report,” 33 ff.

68 For example, the general hospital at Santiago had 250 beds, could have held 350, and had 1800 when the Americans entered the city in 1898. Wood, , Civil Report, 1902, 169 Google ScholarPubMed; “Kean Report,” 4 ff.

69 Wood, , Civil Report, 1902, 170–173.Google ScholarPubMed

70 Ibid., 171.

71 Ibid., 173–175. Prisons were under separate supervision and have been mentioned elsewhere: Hitchman, Leonard Wood and Cuban Independence, chs. 2–3.