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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 11 December 2015
Frontiers are, by definition, unsettled and wild places; populations are shifting and mobile, social conditions are in state of constant flux, and governmental authority is generally weak. Frontier populations tend to be resentful of any type of control, and are often engaged in entreprenurial activities whose degree of legality varies widely. In frontier conditions, people the state defines as vagabonds and marginal tend to flourish. Their tenure as frontiersmen is usually brief, for they depend on the very conditions of instability which exist in areas with underdeveloped economies, weak authority, and sparse and spatially dispersed populations. Nevertheless, they can have an effect out of proportion to their numbers in a frontier society.
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3 See Stem, pp. 66–69, 71–75.
4 Padre Daniel Januske, San Francisco de Borja,[1723], Archivo Histórico de Hacienda, Temporalidades 278, México, D.F. (hereafter cited as AHH).
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this my order to the governors and constables from the pueblo[s] of Cucurpe, Taupe and [O]podepe…and [that] each governor bring fifteen certified Indians for two weeks, [and] that [the miners] will pay them for their work and [they] will be treated well; that they [are to work] for the benefit of the mines and the development of the royal income of His Majesty.
In May of the following year García de Terán ordered the Indian governor of Arizpe to send four Indians to work in the mines of Francisco Bautista. Quoted in Rodríguez, Gonzales, Etnología, pp. 150–151,Google Scholar note 22. When Jesuit missionary Eusebio Francisco Kino arrived in the Pimeria Alta in 1687, he carried an order from the Audiencia of Guadalajara exempting recently baptized mission Indians from repartimiento labor for twenty years. The order reflected the illegal use of newly baptized Indians for mine labor, which in turn provoked some resistance to the missions. Bolton, Herbert E., The Rim of Christendom: A Biography of Eusebio Francisco Kino, Pacific Coast Pioneer, (New York, 1960), p. 234.Google Scholar
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22 Ibid., p. 173.
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32 Del Río, “Pretexto de los Placeres…,” p. 176.
33 Ms. José María Paz y Goicochea to Francisco Rouset, Cieneguilla, November 13, 1803; Arcivo del Gobierno Eclesiástico de la Mitra de Sonora, Hermosillo, Sonora (hereinafter cited as AGEMS).
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35 The breakdown on the average family size is as follows:
A possible explanation for the lower average family size among the Yaqui and Nijora population is a high mortality from the 1816 smallpox epidemic. The Yaqui-Nijora population suffered the highest mortality—213 deaths in 1816 and an excess of 134 deaths over baptisms, as against 48 deaths and 37 baptisms for the Spaniards and Castas.
36 The total number of niños and niñas was 196; 49 of Spaniards, 72 of castas, and 75 Yaquis and Níjoras.
37 Ms. Francisco Xavier Vásquez, San Francisco de Asís, July 29, 1817, “Padrón de este curato RI. de San Yldefonso de la Cieneguilla.” AGEMS.
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40 Ms. José de Aguilar to Lázaro de la Garza, Ures, June 9, 1849, AGEMS; and Francisco Xavier Vásquez to Lázaro de la Garza, Caborca, November 15, 1849, AGEMS.
41 Padre Reyes to Viceroy Bucareli, México, April 20, 1772; AGN Misiones 14.
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48 The 1801 census of San Ignacio mission and its visitas notes that Ymuris had been depopulated, and occupied by non-Piman settlers. Ms. Josef Pérez, O.F.M., San Ignacio, December 31, 1801, “Padrón de los Naturales de esta Misión de San Ygnacio,” AGEMS.
49 Teodoro de Croix, Arizpe, December 23, 1780, AGI, Audiencia de Guadalajara 272.
50 Ms. Pérez, “Padrón de los Naturales…,” AGEMS.
51 Ms. José Pérez, O.F.M., Oquitoa, December 31, 1818, “Estado Espiritual y Temporal de las Misiones de la Pimería Alta de esta Provincia de Sonora,” AGN Misiones 13.
52 See Moorhead, Max, The Presidio Bastion of the Borderlands (Norman, 1975);Google Scholar Kessell, Friars, Soldiers and Reformers; and Dobyns, Spanish Colonial Tucson.
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54 Ms. Pedro de Arriquibar, Tucson, August 6, 1796; Special Collections, University of Arizona Library.
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56 Ibid., pp. 222–223.
57 Ibid., p. 225.
58 Kessell, , Friars, Soldiers and Reformers, pp. 128, 132–133.Google Scholar
59 Ibid., p. 163.
60 Ms. Bernardo de Urrea, Altar, March 21, 1767, “Padrón de el vezindario que existe oy en este Real Prez,” AF 33/905; Ms. Francisco Elías González, Terrenate, April 6, 1767, “Padrón yndibidual del vesindario de este dho presidio,” AF 33/905; and Ms. Juan Baptista de Anza, Tubac, April 2, 1767, “padrón que forma para la quenta del Becindario que existe en este Real Presidio de San Ygnacio de Tubac,” AF 33/905.
61 Antonio Bonilla, Terrenate, 1774, “Revista pasada por el Capitán de Infantería D. Antonio Bonilla Ayudante Inspector de los Presidios internos de esta Nueva España a la Compañía de dotación del expresado Presidio,” AGI Audiencia de Guadalajara 272.
62 Ms. Anonymous, “Estado de los Soldados de esta compañía con distinción de Nombres, edad, patria, robusto, calidad, y circumstancias de cada uno,” from Bonilla, “Revista.”
63 Ms. Antonio Bonilla, Terrenate, June 4, 1774, “Estado General Del Vecindario Del Presidio de S[an] Felipe de Jesús de Guevavi alias Terrenate,: from Bonilla, “Revista.”
64 Ibid.
65 Ibid.
66 Hu-DeHart, Evelyn, Missionaries, Miners, and Indians: Spanish Contact with the Yoqui Nation of Northwestern New Spain (Tucson, 1981) pp. 5, 50.Google Scholar
67 Ibid., pp. 88–89.
68 Mccarty Kieran, O.F.M., A Spanish Frontier in the Enlightened Age, Franciscan Beginnings in Sonora and Arizona, 1767–1770, (Washington, D.C., 1981), p. 12.Google Scholar
69 Hu-DeHart, , Missionaries, Miners, and Indians, pp. 94–95.Google Scholar
70 Ibid., p. 98.
71 Ms. Francisco Crespo to Antonio María Bucareli, Horcasitas, February 20, 1776, AGN Provincias Internas 246.
72 Kessell, , Friars, Soldiers, and Reformers, pp. 202, 253–254.Google Scholar
73 Rodríguez, González, Etnología, p. 51.Google Scholar
74 For 1818 from Ms. José Pérez, O.F.M., Oquitoa, December 31, 1818, “Estado Espiritual y Temporal…,” AGN Misiones 13; for 1819 from Ms. Faustino González, O.F.M., Caborca, January 4, 1820, “Estado Espiritual y Tmeporal de las Misiones de la Pimería Alta de esta Provincia de Sonora,” AGN Misiones 3; and for 1820 from Ms. Faustino González, O.F.M., Caborca, January 4, 1821,” Estado Espiritual y Temporal de las Misiones de la Pimería Alta de esta Provincia de Sonora,” AGEMS.
75 Padre Reyes to Viceroy Bucareli, México, April 20, 1772, AGN Misiones 14.