Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-dk4vv Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T07:35:49.177Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Language Policy in South Asia

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 November 2008

Braj B. Kachru
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

In the political divisions within South Asia there has traditionally been no organized effort for language policies.1 Language was essentially related to one's caste, village, district, and state. Beyond this, one identified with languages associated with religion (Sanskrit or Arabic), or learned and literary texts (mainly Sanskrit and Persian). At the time of Indian independence (1947), one task of the new government was to unravel the status and position of almost 560 sovereign states which were ruled by an array of mahārājās, nawābs, and lesser luminaries, depending on the size and the revenue of each state and subdivision. Each state state was a kindgom unto itself, and such political divisions did not foster a national language policy. In India, the largest country in South Asia, four languages were used for wider communication as bazār languages or languages of literature and intranational communication: Hindi (and its varieties, Hindustani and Urdu), Sanskrit, Persian, and later, English (cf., for Sanskrit, Kachru and Sridhar 1978; Sharma 1976; for English, Kachru 1969; 1982a). The Hindus tended to send their children to a pāṭhśālā (traditional Hindu school mainly for scriptural education) for the study of the scriptures and some basic knowledge of the śāastras (Sanskrit instructional texts, treatise), and the Muslims tended to send their children to a maktab (traditional school for Koranic instruction). The denominational schools (vidyāZaya) provided liberal arts instruction in Sanskrit, Persian, Hindi, Arabic, or in the regional languages.

Type
Language Policy and the Linguistic Situation
Information
Annual Review of Applied Linguistics , Volume 2 , March 1981 , pp. 60 - 85
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1981

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

UNANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Altbach, P. G. and Kelley, G. P.. 1978. Education and colonialism. New York: Longman.Google Scholar
Annamalai, E. 1979a. on devising alphabet for unwritten languages. In Rao, G. S. (ed.) Literacy methodology. Mysore: Central Institute of Indian Languges.Google Scholar
Appadurai, K. n.d. India's language problem. Madras: Tamil India publications.Google Scholar
Apte, M. L. 1977. Region, religion, and language: parameters of identity in the process of acculturation. In David, K. (ed.) The new wind: changing identities in South Asia. The Hague: Mouton.Google Scholar
Asher, R. E. 1972. Dravidian separateness: Invention or reality. South Asian review. 6.1.Google Scholar
Banerji, S. 1878. Lord Macaulay and higher education in India. Calcutta: I. C. Bose and Company.Google Scholar
Biligiri, H. S. 1969 problems of tribal languages in India. In Poddar, A.(ed.) Language and society in India: proceedings of a seminar. Simla: Indian Institute of Advanced Study.Google Scholar
Bose, A. 1969. Some aspects of the linguistic demography of India. In Poddar, A. (ed.) Language and society in India: proceedings of a seminar. Simla: Indian Institute of Advanced Study.Google Scholar
Bright, W. (ed.) 1966. Sociolinguistics: proceeding of the UCLA sociolinguistics conference. The Hague: Mouton.Google Scholar
Bright, W. 1969. Diversity and unity in the languages of India. In Poddar, A. (ed.) Language and society in India: proceedings of a seminar. Simla: Indian Institute of Advanced Study.Google Scholar
Borwn, W. N. 1952. The language problem of India and pakistan. In Georgetown University monograph series on Languges and Linguistics. Washington, DC: Georgetown University press. 17–30.Google Scholar
Borwn, W. N. 1953. Script reform in modern India, Pakistan, and Ceylon. Journal of Ameerican Oriental society. 73. 1.*CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burman, B. K. R. 1968. Bibliography of publications on tribal languages. New Delhi: The Register General of India.Google Scholar
Chatterjee, S. and Chatterjee, S.. 1979. Standardization of Bengali in the social perspective. In Annamalai, E. (ed.) Language movement in India. Mysore: Central Institute of India Languages. 25–34.Google Scholar
Chatterji, K. K. 1976. English education in India: Issues and opinions. Delhi: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Chatterji, S. K. 1935. A Roman alphabet for India. Calcutta: Calcutta University Press.Google Scholar
Chatterji, S. K. 1954. Scientific and technical terms in modern Indian languages. Calcutta: Vidyoday Library.*Google Scholar
Chatterji, S. K. 1973. India: A polyglot nation and its linguistic problems vis-a-vis national integration. Bombay: Mahatma Ganthi Memorial Reserch Centre.Google Scholar
Chaturvedi, M. G. and Mohale, B. V.. 1976. position of Languages in school curriculum in India. New Delhi: National Council of Educational Research and Training.Google Scholar
Clark, T. W. 1969. Nepali and pahari. In Sebeok, T. A. (ed.) current trends in linguistics. The Hague: Mouton. [Vol. 5, Linguistics in South Asia.]Google Scholar
Clive, J. 1973. Macaulay: The shaping of the historian. New York: Knopf.Google Scholar
Coates, W. A. 1961. The languages of Ceylon in 1946 and 1953. University of Ceylon review. 19. 1. 81–91.Google Scholar
Contractor, M. K. 1968. Our Language problems and unity of India: An approach. Surat: The Author.Google Scholar
Das Gupta, J. 1969. Official language problems and policies in South Asia. In Sebeok, T. A. (ed.) current trends in linguistics. The Hague: Mouton. [Vol. 5, Linguistics in South Asia.]Google Scholar
Das Gupta, J. and Gumperz, J. J.. 1968. Language, communication, and control in North India. In Fishman, J. A., Ferguson, C. A. and Das Gupta, J. (eds.) Language problems of developing nations. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Daswani, C. J. 1979 Movement for the recognition of Sindhi and for the choice of a script for Sindhi. In Annamalai, E. (ed.) Language movement in India. Mysore: Central Institute of Indian Languages. 60–69.Google Scholar
David, K. (ed.) 1977. The new wind: changing identities in South Asia. The Hague: Mouton.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Silve, C. P. 1956. The contribution of English to the development of law and politics in ceylon. Journal of the national education society of Ceylon. 5. 4. 8–12.Google Scholar
De Silva, M. W. S. 1967. Effects of purism on the evolution of the written language: case history of the Sinhalese situation. Linguistics. 36.5–17.Google Scholar
De Silva, M. W. S. 1969. Sinhalese. In Sebeok, T. A. (ed.) Current trends in linguistics. The Hague: Mouton. [Vol. 5, Linguistics in South Asia.]Google Scholar
De Silva, M. W. S. n.d. problems of literacy in diglossic communities. In Gorman, T. P. (ed.) Language and literacy: Current issues and research. Tehran: International Institute for Adult Literacy Methods.Google Scholar
De Souza, A. T. A. 1960. The changing place of English in the educational system of Ceylon. In A report of a conference of teachers of English. Peradeniya: The University of Ceylon. [Unpublished.]Google Scholar
Dil, A. S. 1966. The position and teaching of English in pakistan. pakistani linguistics. 185–242. [Shahidullah presentation Volume.]Google Scholar
Embree, A. 1962. Charles Grant and British rule in India. New York: Columbia University press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Emeneau, M. B. 1956. India as a linguistic area. Language. 32. 1. 3–16.*CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ferguson, C. A. and Gumperz, J. J. (eds.) 1960. Linguistic diversity in South Asia: Studies in regional, social, and functional variation. International journal of American linguistics. 26. 3. part II. [Special issue.]Google Scholar
Fernando, C. 1977. English and Sinhala bilingualism in sri Lanka. Language in society. 6. 3. 341–360.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fernando, T. and Kearney, R. (eds.) 1979. Modern sri Lanka: A society in transition. Syracuse: Maxwell School, Syracuse University.Google Scholar
Fishman, J. A. (ed.) 1978.Advances in the study of societal multilingualism. The Hague: Mouton.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fishman, J. A.Ferguson, C. A., and Das Gupta, J. (eds.) 1968, Language problems of developing nations. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Gerow, E. and Langs, M. D. (eds.) 1974. Studies in the Language and culture of south Asia. Seattle: University of Washington press.Google Scholar
Goel, B. S. and Saini, S. K.. 1972. Mother tongue and equality of opportunity in education. New Delhi: National Council of Education Research.Google Scholar
Gorman, T. P. (ed.) n.d. Language and literacy: Current issues and research. Tehran: International Institute for Adult Literacy Methouds.Google Scholar
Hartford, B. and Valdman, A. (eds.) In press. Issues in international bilingual education: The role of the vernacular. New York: plenum.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Imam, M. (ed.) 1972. Minorities and the law. Bombay: N. M. Tipathi.Google Scholar
Islam, R. 1975. Language planning in Bangladesh.Indian Linguistics. 36. 3.186–190.Google Scholar
Jacob, A. 1972. Linguistic minorities in India: problems and sqfeguards. In Imam, M. (ed.) Minorities and the law. Bombay: N. M. Tipathi.Google Scholar
Jamil, M. 1963. English in pakistan. pakistan quarterly. 11. 3. 38–41.Google Scholar
John, K. K. n.d. The only socution to India's Language problem. New Delhi: The Author.Google Scholar
Kachru, B. B. 1969. English in South Asia. In Sebeok, T. A. (ed.) Current trends in linguistics. The Hague: Mouton. [Vol. 5, Linguistics in South Asia.]Google Scholar
Also in Fishman, J. (ed.) 1978. Advances in the study of societal multilingualism. The Hague: Mouton.*CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kachru, B. B. 1975. A retrospective study of the Central Institute of English and Foreign Languages and its relation to Indian universities. In Fox, M. J.. Language and development: A retrospective survey of Ford Foundation Language projects, 1952–1974. 2 Vols. New York: The Ford Foundation.Google Scholar
Kachru, B. B. 1977. Linguistic schizophrenia and language census: A note on the language situation. Linguistics. 186. 17–32.Google Scholar
Kachru, B. B. 1981a. Kashmiri literature. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.Google Scholar
Kachru, B. B. 1981b. The pragmatics of non-native varieties of English. In Smith, L. E. (ed.) English for cross-cultural communication. London: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Kachru, B. B. (ed.) 1982b. The other tongue: English across cultures. Champaign: University of Illinois Press. **Google Scholar
Kachru, B. B. In Press. The bilingual's linguistic repertoire. In Hartford, B. and Valdman, A. (eds.) Issues in international bilingual education: The role of the vernacular. New York: Plenum.Google Scholar
Kalelkar, N. G. and Khubchandani, L. M. (eds.) 1969. Linguistics and Language planning in Inidia. Poona: Deccan College Postgraduate and Research Institute.Google Scholar
Kandiah, T., 1964. The teaching of English as a second language in Ceylon. Transactions of the University of Ceylon linguistic society. 61–75.Google Scholar
Kandiah, T. 1971/1972. The teaching of English in Ceylon: Some linguistic issues (A model oriented discussion). Journal of national education society of Ceylon. 20. 52–92; 21. 49–77.Google Scholar
Kandiah, T.. 1978. A standard language and socio-historical parameters: Standard Lankan Tamil. In Kachru, B. and Sridhar, S. N. (eds.) Aspects of sociolinguistics in South Asia. [Special issue of International Journal of the sociology of language.] 16. 59–75.Google Scholar
Kandiah, T.. 1981. Lankan English schizoglossia. English world-wide: A journal of varieties of English. 2. 1. 63–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Khubchandani, L. M. 1978. Distribution of contact languages in India: A study of the 1961 bilingualism returns. In Fishman, J. (ed.) Advances in the study of societal multilingualism. The Hague: Mouton.Google Scholar
Kodesia, K. 1969. The problems of linguistic states in India. Delhi: Sterling publishers.Google Scholar
Kopf, D. 1969. British orientalism and the Bengal renaissance: The dynamics of Indian modernization, 1773–1835. Berkeley: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kothari, D. S. 1969. Education, science, and national development. Bombay: Asia Publishing House.Google Scholar
Krishna, G. (ed.) 1979. Contributions ot South Asian studies: 1. Delhi: Oxford university Press.Google Scholar
Krishnamurti, Bh. 1975. Language varieties and problems of standardization. Indian linguistics. 36. 3. 191–196.Google Scholar
Krishnamurti, Bh. 1976. Language standardization in India. Hyderabad: Osmania University. [Osmania papers in linguistics 2. ]Google Scholar
Krishnamurti, Bh. 1978. Language planning and development: The case of Telugu. Contributions ot Asian studies. Leiden. 2. 37–56.Google Scholar
Kumar, S. 1980. A sociolinguistic view of Hindi in administration. Indian linguistics. 41. 1. 21–30.Google Scholar
Malla, K. P. 1968. The lure of English. Vasudha. 11. 9. 15.Google Scholar
Malla, K. P. (ed.) 1969. English teaching in Nepal: A British Council view. In Report of the national conference of college teachers of English. Kathmandu: Tribhuvan University.Google Scholar
Malla, K. P.. 1977a. English in Nepalese education. Kathmandu: Ratna Pustak Bhandar.Google Scholar
Malla, K. P.. 1977b. English in Nepalese education: A case for coordination. In Report of the second national convention of teachers of English. Kathmandu: Curriculum Development Center, Tribhuvan University.Google Scholar
Malla, K. P.. 1977c. English language teaching in Tribhuvan University. Vasudha. 16. 1. 15–29Google Scholar
Malla, K. P. and Donnelly, J. J.. 1971. Nationalism, multilingualism, and English teaching as a factor in national development: A casse study of Nepal. Edinburgh: Univeristy of Edinburgh. Mimeo.Google Scholar
Malla, K. P. and Kansakar, T. R. (eds.) 1978. Occasional papers in the Humanities and Social Sciences. Kathmandu: Tribhuvan University.Google Scholar
Masica, C. P. 1976. Defining a linguistic area: South Asia. Chicago: University Press.Google Scholar
Matin, H. M. 1954. National language in Pakistan. Karachi: Marsh Publishing House.Google Scholar
McCully, B. T. 1940. English education and the origin of Indian nationalism. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Menon, K. P. K. (ed.) 1968. Retain English for unity and progress. Calicut: Powra Sangham.Google Scholar
Mishra, J. 1969. The case of Maithili. In Poddar, A. (ed.) Language and society in India: Proceedings of a seminar. Simla: Indian Institute of Advanced Study.Google Scholar
Mohiyuddin, M. 1963. English for East pakistanis: What kind? The teacher's world: Journal of the institute of education and research, University of Decca. 2. 2. 11–13.Google Scholar
Moss, W. R. 1964. English in the Comonwealth: 7--Pakistan. English language teaching 18. 2. 63–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Naik, J. P. 1975. Equality, quality, and quantity: The elusive triangle in education in India. Bombay: Allied Publishers.Google Scholar
Nayaguam, X. S. T. 1956. Language rights in Ceylon. Tamil culture. 5. 3.Google Scholar
Nigam, R. C. 1972. Language handbook on mother tongues in census. Delhi: Manager of Publications, Government of India.Google Scholar
Nurullah, S. and Naik, J. P.. 1951. A history of education in India. Bombay and London: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Obeyesekere, R. and Fernando, C. (eds.) 1981. An anthology of modern writing in Sri Lanka. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.Google Scholar
Pandharipande, R. 1980. Language contact and language variation: Nagpuri Marathi and Hindi. Department of Linguistics, University of Illinois. [Manuscript.]Google Scholar
Pandharipande, R.. In press. On the nativization of lexicon: The case of Marathi. Linguistics.Google Scholar
Pandit, P. B. 1977. Language in plural society: The case of India. New Delhi: Manohar Publishers. [Seventh Dev Raj Chanana memorial lectures.]Google Scholar
Pandit, P. B. 1978. Language and identity: The Punjabi language in Delhi. In Kachru, B. and Sridhar, S. (eds.) Aspects of sociolinguistics in South Asia. [Special issue of International Journal of the sociology of language. 16.] 93–108.Google Scholar
Passé, H. A. 1948. The English language in Ceylon. London University. Ph. D. diss.Google Scholar
Pattanayak, D. P. 1971. Distribution of Languages in India, in States and Union Territories. Mysore: Central Institute of Indian LanguagesGoogle Scholar
Pattanayak, D. P. (ed.) 1977. Language planning and language development. In Sharma, P. G. and Kumar, S. (eds.) Indian bilingualism. Agra: Kendriya Hindi Sansthan.Google Scholar
Pattanayak, D. P. 1979. The problem and planning of scripts. In Sambasiva, G. (ed.) Literacy method. Mysore: Central Institute of Indian Languages.Google Scholar
Perera, L. H. H. 1955. Ceylon under the Western rule. London: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Poddar, A. (ed.) 1955. Langauge and society in India: Proceedings of a seminar. Simla: Indian Institute of Advanced Study.Google Scholar
Rao, G. S. (ed.) 1979. Literacy methodology. Mysore: Central Institute of Indian Languages.Google Scholar
Rao, P. K. 1969. Language issue in the Indian constituent assembly, 1946–1950: Rational support for English and non-rational support for Hindi. Bombay and Bangalore: International Book House.Google Scholar
Ray, P. S. 1960. A single script for India. Seminar. [Reprinted in Language standardization. 1963. The Hague: Mouton.]*Google Scholar
Report of a conference fo teachers of English. 1960. Peradeniga: The University of Ceylon. [Unpublished.]*Google Scholar
Report of the national conference of college teachers of English. 1969. Kathmandu: Tribhuvan University.Google Scholar
Report of the second national convention of teachers of English. 1977. Kathmandu: Curriculum Development Center, Tribhuvan University.Google Scholar
Sambasiva, G. (ed.) 1979. Literacy methodology. Mysore: Central Institute of Indian Languages.Google Scholar
Schackle, C. 1979. Language and cultural identity in Pakistan Punjab. In Krishna, G. (ed.) Contribution to Sotuh Asian studies: 1. Delhi: Oxford Univeristy Press.Google Scholar
Schiffman, H. 1974. Language, linguistics, and politics in Tamil Naud. In Gerow, E. and Langs, M. D. (eds.) Studies in the language and culture of South Asia. Seattle: University of Washingotn Press.Google Scholar
Sebeok, T. A. (ed.) 1969. Current trends in linguistics. The Hague: Mouton. [Vol. 5, Linguistics in South Asia.]Google Scholar
Shanmugam, S. V. 1975. Modernization in Tamil. Anthropological linguistics. 17. 3.Google Scholar
Sharma, P. G. and Kumar, S. (eds.) 1977. Indian bilingualism. Agra: Kendriya Hindi Sansthan.Google Scholar
Shrestha, R. K. 1978. Diglossomania in Nepali English. In Malla, K. P. and Kansakar, T. R. (eds.) Occasional papers in the Humanities and Social Sciences. Kathmandu: Tribhuvan Univeristy.Google Scholar
Sinha, S. P. 1978. English in India: A historical study with particular reference ot English education in India. Patna: Janaki Prakashan.Google Scholar
Smith, L. E. (ed.) 1981. English for cross-cultural communication. London: Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Srivastava, R. N. 1975. The sociology of functional Hindi. In Srivastava, R. N. (ed.) Functional Hindi. Agra: Central Institute of Hindi. 27–34.Google Scholar
Srivastava, R. N. (ed.) 1975. Functional Hindi. Agra: Central Institute of Hindi.Google Scholar
Subramoniam, V. I. 1977. A note on the preservation of the mother tongue in Kerala. In Sharma, P. G. and Kumar, S. (eds.) Indian bilingualism. Agra: Kendriya Hindi Sansthan.Google Scholar
The Telugu language committee report on the use of modern standard Telugu [siṣṭavyāvahārika] for teaching and examinations for all university courses. A report submitted to the Andhra University. 1973. Waltair: Andhra University.Google Scholar
Verma, Y. P. 1973. The role of English in Nepal, with particular reference to the English language press. Institute of Humanities and Social Sciences, Tribhuvan University. Ph.D. diss.Google Scholar
Walatara, D. 1960. The scope and limitations of bilingualism with a second language with specific reference to the case of Ceylon. Teaching English. 6. 3. 3–9.Google Scholar
Walatara, D. 1964. The teaching of English as a complementary language in Ceylon. Colombo.Google Scholar
Weinreich, U. 1953. Languages in contact. The Hague: Mouton.Google Scholar
Yadav, R. K. 1966. The Indian language problem: A comparative study. Delhi: National Publishing House.Google Scholar