Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-fbnjt Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-14T22:32:37.609Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Law on Trafficking in Persons: The Quest for an Effective Model

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  27 October 2016

Anupam JHA
Anupam JHA*
Affiliation:
University of Delhi, Indiaajha@law.du.ac.in
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

International efforts to codify the law on trafficking in persons have been evolving since the early twentieth century. This paper re-examines this journey of law and divides the existing international and domestic legal regimes into three categories: the rescue model, quasi-curative model, and curative model. The study proposes the development of an effective legal model, which may rest on the twin pillars of shared state responsibility and long-term assistance to trafficking victims. In this model, it is argued that the enunciated principles of prosecution, protection, and prevention to combat human trafficking should not be dealt with in isolation, but in combination with the concepts of state responsibility and international financial co-operation to provide long-term assistance to the victims. My central argument focuses on the suitable legal regime in which the prosecution strategy is to successfully prosecute traffickers in person, improve survivors’ protection, and reinvigorate obligations imposed on the states.

Type
Articles
Information
Asian Journal of International Law , Volume 8 , Issue 1 , January 2018 , pp. 225 - 257
Copyright
© Asian Journal of International Law 2016 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

*

Assistant Professor (Sr. Grade), Law Center-II, University of Delhi, India.

References

1. See e.g. SHELLEY, Louis, Human Trafficking: A Global Perspective (New York/London: Cambridge University Press, 2010) at 18 CrossRefGoogle Scholar, and Trafficking in Persons Report, 2015 (Washington, DC: State Department).

2. LACZKO, Frank and GOZDZIAK, Elzbieta M., eds., Data and Research on Human Trafficking: A Global Survey (Switzerland: International Organization for Migration, 2005)Google Scholar; ADEPOJU, Aderanti, “Review of Research and Data on Human Trafficking in Sub-Saharan Africa” (2005) 43 International Migration 75 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; LEE, Maggy, Trafficking and Global Crime Control (London: Sage Publishers, 2011)Google Scholar.

3. According to the estimates of the United Nations [UN], the Council of the European Union [EU], and the International Organization of Migration [IOM], the trafficking-in-persons industry generates total revenues of more than US$32 billion per year globally. Also see KARA, Siddhartha, “Supply and Demand: Human Trafficking in the Global Economy” (2011) 33 Harvard International Law Review 66 at 70 Google Scholar.

4. THACHUK, Kimberley L., Transnational Threats: Smuggling and Trafficking in Arms, Drugs, and Human Life (Westport, CT: Praeger Security International, 2007)Google Scholar; JENNER, Matthew S., “International Drug Trafficking: A Global Problem with a Domestic Solution” (2011) 18 Indiana Journal of Legal Studies 901 at 902 Google Scholar; PATI, Roza, “Trading in Humans: A New Haven Perspective” (2012) 20 Asia Pacific Law Review 135 at 135 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

5. WHEATON, Elizabeth M., SCHAUER, Edward J., and GALLI, Thomas V., “Economics of Human Trafficking” (2010) 48 International Migration 114 at 124 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; NGWE, Job E. and ELECHI, O. Oko, “Human Trafficking: The Modern Day Slavery of the 21st Century” (2012) 6 African Journal of Criminology and Justice Studies 103 at 117 Google Scholar.

6. See FARLEY, Melissa, FRANZBLAU, Kenneth, and KENNEDY, Alexis M., “Online Prostitution and Trafficking” (2013–14) 77 Albany Law Review 1039 at 1064 Google Scholar; VANDENBERG, Martina, “Complicity, Corruption, and Human Rights: Trafficking in Human Beings (International Crimes Against Women)” (2002) 34 Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law 323 at 324 Google Scholar; GUTH, Andrew P., “Human Trafficking in the Philippines: The Need for an Effective Anti-Corruption Program” (2010) 13 Trends in Organized Crime 147 at 160 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

7. BLANK, Jennifer K., “Human Trafficking, Migration, and Gender” in Meg W. KARRAKER, ed., The Other People: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Migration (Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), at 55 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

8. The Protection Project is a human rights institute founded in 1994 to address trafficking in persons as a human rights violation. It is based at the Johns Hopkins University School of Advanced International Studies in Washington, DC, in the US and has now acquired an independent non-governmental organization [NGO] status.

9. This Report is published annually by the U.S. Department of State’s Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons. It ranks the governments of the world on the basis of their efforts to acknowledge and combat human trafficking. According to the State Department, this Report is the US government’s principal diplomatic tool to engage foreign governments on human trafficking. In this Report, the Department of State places each country onto one of three tiers based on the extent of their governments’ efforts to comply with the “minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking” found in s. 108 of the Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act [TVPA] of 2000 (Public Law 106-386). While Tier 1 is the highest ranking, countries which are placed on Tier 2 are those who do not fully comply with the TVPA’s minimum standards, but are making significant efforts to bring themselves into compliance with those standards. Other lists which are not regarded as good are: Tier 2 Watch List and Tier 3. Pursuant to the TVPA, the governments of countries on Tier 3 may be subject to certain restrictions on bilateral assistance, whereby the US government may withhold or withdraw non-humanitarian, non-trade-related foreign assistance. In addition, certain countries on Tier 3 may not receive funding for government employees’ participation in educational and cultural exchange programmes. See “Tier Placements”, online: U.S. Department of State <http://www.state.gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/2014/226649.htm>.

10. WEITZER, Ronald and ZHANG, Sheldon X., “New Directions in Research on Human Trafficking” (2014) 653 American Academy of Political and Social Science 6 at 7 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

11. Arts. 2, 3, 4, and 6 are on the nature of the rescue character of the state. Accordingly, the Contracting States undertake to entrust the victim of a criminal trafficking act to public or private charitable institutions.

12. International Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Women and Children, 30 September 1921, 211 Consol. T.S. 45, 1912 GR. Brit. T.S. No. 20 (entered into force 15 June 1922), online: UN <https://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=VII-2&chapter=7&clang=_en>.

13. Ibid., Vol. 9, at 415.

14. International Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Women of Full Age, 11 October 1933, League of Nations, Treaty Series, Vol. 150, at 43 (entered into force 24 August 1934), online: UN <https://treaties.un.org/doc/Treaties/1950/04/19500424%2010-32%20PM/Ch_VII_4p.pdf>.

15. Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons and of the Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others, 21 March 1950, United Nations, Treaty Series, Vol. 96, at 271 (entered into force 25 July 1951), online: UN <https://treaties.un.org/doc/Treaties/1951/07/19510725%2010-37%20PM/Ch_VII_11_a_bp.pdf>.

16. SAARC Convention on Preventing and Combating the Trafficking in Women and Children for Prostitution, 2002 (entered into force 15 November 2005), online: Faculty of Law, University of Oslo <http://www.jus.uio.no/english/services/library/treaties/02/2-04/saarc-traff-women-children.xml>.

17. Immoral Traffic (Prevention Act) 1956, online: Indian Parliament <http://www.protectionproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/09/India_Acts_1986.pdf>.

18. Ministry of Law, Bangladesh, online: <http://bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd/pdf_part.php?id=159>.

19. BaishunBoshiHo [Prostitution Prevention Law], No. 118 (1956), quoted in PETERFREUND, Tenica, “Japan’s Prostitution Prevention Law: The Case of the Missing Geisha” (2010) Seton Hall Law e-Repositary at 2 Google Scholar.

20. Permanent Mission of the People’s Republic of China to the United Nations and Other International Organizations in Vienna, online: <http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/ce/cgvienna/eng/dbtyw/jdwt/crimelaw/t209043.htm>.

21. FINCKENAUER, James O. and CHIN, Ko-lin, “Asian Transnational Organized Crime and Its Impact on the US: Developing a Transnational Crime Research Agenda” (March 2006) Department of Justice, USA at 7–15 Google Scholar.

22. HATHAWAY, James C., “Human Rights Quagmire of Human Trafficking” (2008–09) 49 Vanderbilt Journal of International Law 1 at 7Google Scholar: KANGASPUNTA, Kristiina, “Identifying Human Trafficking Victims: Measuring the Immeasurable” (2010) 9 Criminology & Public Policy 257 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; FARRELL, Amy, McDEVITT, Jack, and FAHY, Stephanie, “Identifying Human Trafficking Victims: Where Are All the Victims?” (2010) 9 Criminology & Public Policy 201 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

23. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 16 December 1966, 999 U.N.T.S. 171, 6 I.L.M. 268 (entered into force 23 March 1976), online: UN <https://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/UNTS/Volume%20999/volume-999-I-14668-English.pdf> [ICCPR].

24. International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights, 16 December 1966, G.A. Resolution 2200A (XXI) (entered into force 3 January 1976), online: UN <http://www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/CESCR.aspx> [ICESCR].

25. International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, 18 December 1979, G.A. Resolution 34/180 (entered into force 3 September 1981), online: UN Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women <http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/text/econvention>.

26. Convention on the Rights of the Child, 20 November 1989, G.A. Resolution 44/25 (1989) (entered into force 2 September 1990), online: UN <http://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/crc.aspx>.

27. European Convention on Human Rights, 4 November 1950 (entered into force 3 September 1953), online: ECHR <http://www.echr.coe.int/Documents/Convention_ENG.pdf>.

28. American Convention on Human Rights, 22 November 1969, online: Inter-American Commission on Human Rights <http://www.cidh.org/Basicos/English/Basic3.American%20Convention.htm>.

29. KONRAD, Helga, “The OSCE and the Struggle Against Human Trafficking: The Argument for a Comprehensive, Multi-Pronged Approach” (2006) 1 Intercultural Human Rights Law Review 79 at 82 Google Scholar.

30. CAVALIERI, Shelley, “Between Victim and Agent: A Third Way Feminist Account of Trafficking for Sex Work” (2011) 86 Indiana Law Journal 1409 at 1457 Google Scholar.

31. COOMARASWAMY, Radhika, Report of the Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women, Its Causes and Consequences, UN Doc./E/CN.4/2000/68Google Scholar, at para. 22.

32. See YEN, Iris, “Of Vice and Men: A New Approach to Eradicating Sex Trafficking by Reducing Male Demand Through Educational Programs and Abolitionist Legislation” (2008) 98 Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 653 at 666 Google Scholar; Kara, supra note 3.

33. ANDERSON, Bridget and DAVIDSON, Julia O., Trafficking—A Demand Led Problem? A Multi-Country Pilot Study (Stockholm: Save The Children, 2002), at 30 Google Scholar, 45; Yen, supra note 32 at 667; KELEMAN, Katalin and JOHANSSON, Marta C., “Still Neglecting the Demand That Fuels Human Trafficking: A Study Comparing the Criminal Laws and Practice of Five European States on Human Trafficking, Purchasing Sex From Trafficked Adults and From Minors” (2013) 21 European Journal of Crime, Criminal Law, and Criminal Justice 247 at 289 Google Scholar; ROBERTSON, Grace, “The Injustice of Sex Trafficking and the Efficacy of Legislation” (2012) 6 Global Tides 1 Google Scholar.

34. Sex Purchase Act, 1999 (Sweden); art. 250 bis & ter, Dutch Penal Code, 1881.

35. See Combating Trafficking in Persons: A Handbook for Parliamentarians, Report by Inter-Parliamentary Union and UNDOC (2009), online: UNDOC <https://www.unodc.org/documents/human-trafficking/UN_Handbook_engl_core_low.pdf>.

36. CULLEN-DUPONT, Kathryn, Human Trafficking (New York: Info Base Publishing, 2009) at 51 Google Scholar.

37. List of Products Produced By Forced or Indentured Child Labour, online: Department of Labor (USA) <http://www.dol.gov/ilab/reports/child-labor/list-of-products/index-country.htm>.

38. JOHNSON, E. Christopher, Jr, “The Corporate Lawyer, Human Trafficking, and Child Labour: Who is in Your Supply Chain” (2013) 30 T.M. Cooley Law Review 27 at 28 Google Scholar.

39. OBOKATA, Tom, “Smuggling of Human Beings from a Human Rights Perspective: Obligations of Non-State and State Actors under International Human Rights Law” (2005) 17 International Journal of Refugee Law 394 at 412 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

40. See Vandenberg, supra note 6 at 326; KENDALL, Virginia M., “Greasing the Palm: An Argument for an Increased Focus on Public Corruption in the Fight Against International Human Trafficking” (2011) 44 Cornell International Law Journal 33 at 37 Google Scholar.

41. The Vienna Forum Report: A Way Forward to Combat Human Trafficking, United Nations Global Initiative to Fight Human Trafficking [UN.GIFT] (2008), online: UN.GIFT <http://www.ungift.org/docs/ungift/pdf/vf/ebook2.pdf>.

42. ZHANG, Sheldon X. and PINEDA, Samuel L., “Corruption as a Causal Factor in Human Trafficking” in Dina SIEGEL and Hans NELEN, eds., Organized Crime: Culture, Markets and Policies (New York: Springer, 2008), at 45–46 Google Scholar.

43. The Role of Corruption in Trafficking in Persons, United Nations Office of Drugs and Crime (11 November 2009), online: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime <http://www.unodc.org/documents/human-trafficking/Corruption_and_trafficking_Doha_final.pdf>.

44. Shelley, supra note 1 at 3, 49.

45. Slavery Convention, 25 September 1926 (entered into force 9 March 1927), online: UN Office of the High Commissioner <http://www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/SlaveryConvention.aspx>.

46. Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade, and Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery, adopted by a Conference on Plenipotentiaries Convened by Economic and Social Council Resolution 608 (XXI) of 30 April 1956 on 7 September 1956 (entered into force 30 April 1957).

47. Convention Concerning Forced or Compulsory Labour, adopted at 14th ILC session on 28 June 1930 (entered into force 1 May 1932).

48. Convention Concerning the Abolition of Forced Labour, adopted at 40th ILC session on 25 June 1957 (entered into force 17 January 1959).

49. Convention Concerning Minimum Age for Admission to Employment, adopted at 58th ILC session on 26 June 1973 (entered into force 19 June 1976).

50. Convention Concerning the Prohibition and Immediate Action for the Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labour, adopted at 87th ILC session on 17 June 1999 (entered into force 19 November 2000).

51. Convention Concerning Decent Work for Domestic Workers, 2011 (entered into force 5 September 2013).

52. General Assembly Resolution 55/25 (15 November 2000), Annexure I contains the main Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime, while Annexure II contains Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, online: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime <http://www.unodc.org/documents/treaties/UNTOC/Publications/TOC%20Convention/TOCebook-e.pdf>.

53. Ibid., Annexure II.

54. Report of the Secretary-General Pursuant to Paragraph 2 of Security Council Resolution 808 (1993), online: International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia <http://www.icty.org/x/file/Legal%20Library/Statute/statute_808_1993_en.pdf>.

55. Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, online: <http://www.icc-cpi.int/nr/rdonlyres/ea9aeff7-5752-4f84-be94-0a655eb30e16/0/rome_statute_english.pdf>.

56. No. 66/2011/qh/12, online: International Labour Organization <http://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/natlex_browse.details?p_lang=en&p_isn=91653>.

57. Act No. 5 of 2064 (2007), online: Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health <http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/population/trafficking/nepal.trafficking.07.pdf>.

58. MATTAR, Mohamed and SLYKE, Shanna V., “Improving Our Approach to Human Trafficking” (2010) 9 Criminology and Public Policy 197 at 199 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

59. KIM, Kathleen, “The Coercion of Trafficked Workers” (2010–11) 96 Iowa Law Review 409 at 422–424 Google Scholar.

60. Art. 2, ILO Convention 1930.

61. PASCALEV, Assya, “Trafficking of Human Beings for the Purpose of Organ Removal: A Comprehensive Literature Review” (2013)Google Scholar, online: HOTT Project <http://hottproject.com/userfiles/HOTTProject-TraffickinginHumanBeingsforthePurposeofOrganRemoval-AComprehensiveLiteratureReview-OnlinePublication.pdf>.

62. ALBANESE, Jay S., Transnational Crime and the Twenty First Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011)Google Scholar.

63. Art. 2(a), United Nations Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime 2000.

64. CHUANG, Janie, “United States as Global Sheriff Using Unilateral Sanctions to Combat Human Trafficking” (2006) 27 Michigan Journal of International Law 437 at 442 Google Scholar.

65. Supra note 48 at 6.

66. DOEZEMA, Jo, “Now You See Her, Now You Don’t: Sex Workers at the UN Trafficking Protocol Negotiations (Special Issue: Sexual Movements and Gendered Boundaries: Legal Negotiations of the Global and the Local)” (2005) 14 Social and Legal Studies 61 at 67–68 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

67. SADRUDDIN, Hussein, WALTER, Natalia, and HIDALGO, Jose, “Human Trafficking in the United States: Expanding Victim Protection Beyond Prosecution Witnesses” (2005) 16 Stanford Law and Policy Review 379 at 386–387 Google Scholar.

68. Supra note 67 at 388.

69. HAYNES, Dina F., “Used, Abused, Arrested and Deported: Extending Immigration Benefits to Protect the Victims of Trafficking and to Secure the Prosecution of Traffickers” (2004) 26 Human Rights Quarterly 221 at 252–254 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

70. MATTAR, Mohamed Y., “Comparative Models of Reporting Mechanisms on the Status of Trafficking in Human Beings” (2008) 41 Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law 1355 at 1355 Google Scholar.

71. Art. 28 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights provides for the establishment of a Human Rights Committee, which is a monitoring body under the Covenant. The monitoring body called the Committee on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights was established according to the Economic and Social Council [ECOSOC] Resolution 1985/17 of 28 May 1985. Art. 42 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child established the Committee on the Rights of the Child to monitor the implementation of the treaty provisions. Similarly, art. 17 of the Convention on Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women established a Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women to monitor the implementation of treaty obligations. In the same way, art. 19 of the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms enshrines the role of the European Court of Human Rights to observe the engagements undertaken by the Contracting Parties. Last, art. 33 of the American Convention on Human Rights established two institutions, namely, the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights and the Inter-American Court of Human Rights to monitor the observance by parties of the obligations contained in the Convention.

72. The Special Rapporteur on Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children is appointed by the Office of the High Commissioner on Human Rights for a term of three years to focus on the human rights aspect of the victims of trafficking in persons. It has to submit annual reports to the Commission on Human Rights together with recommendations on measures required to uphold and protect the human rights of the victims, Commission on Human Rights Res. E/CN.4/DEC/2004/110 (21.04.2004).

73. MATTAR, Mohamed Y., “Corporate Criminal Liability: Article 10 of the Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime” (2012) 66 Journal of International Affairs 107 Google Scholar.

74. Ibid.

75. See supra note 48 at 30, 43; Kara, supra note 3; Keleman and Johansson, supra note 33 at 289.

76. U.S. Department of State, Trafficking in Persons Report, 2014 (Washington, DC) at 127.

77. CHERNEVA, Iveta, “Human Trafficking for Begging” (2011) 17 Buffalo Human Rights Law Review 25 at 31–35 Google Scholar.

78. For example Trafficking in Persons Report, 2014, supra note 76 at 67, 70, 72, 78, 83, 91, 95, 99, 102, 103, 111, 113, 114, 117, 121, 129, 132, 147, 149.

79. Council of Europe Convention Against Trafficking in Human Beings, 16 May 2005, CETS No. 197 (entered into force 1 February 2008), online: Council of Europe <http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/EN/Treaties/Html/197.htm>.

80. Directive 2011/36/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 5 April 2011 on Preventing and Combating Trafficking in Human Beings and Protecting its Victims, and Replacing Council Framework Decision 2002/629/JHA, online: EUR-Lex <http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32011L0036>.

81. Public Law 106-386 (28 October 2000), 114 Stat. 1464 (codified as amended in scattered ss. of 18, 22, and 42 U.S.C.).

82. See FINCKENAUER, James O., ed., Mafia and Organized Crime (London: Oxford University Press, 2007)Google Scholar; KUSOVAC, Zoran, “People Trafficking: Europe’s New Problem” (2000) Jane’s Intelligence Review 53 Google Scholar.

83. See Shelley, supra note 1 at 83–111; HEIKKINEN, Hanni and LOHRMAN, Reinhard, Involvement of the Organized Crime in the Trafficking in Migrants (International Organization for Migration, 1998)Google Scholar, online: Migration Dialogue, UC Davis <http://www.migration.ucdavis.edu/mm21/Lohrmann.html>.

84. Directive 2011/36/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 5 April 2011.

85. See Executive Order No. 13627, 77 Fed. Reg. 60029 (25 September 2012), online: United States Government Publishing Office <http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/DCPD-201200750/pdf/DCPD-201200750.pdf>.

86. Cal. Civil Code ss. 1714-43 (2012).

87. KENDALL, Virginia M., FUNK, T. Markus, and BANZHOFF, Elizabeth M., “The Year That Changed Compliance: New Laws Conscript the World’s Business Community Into the Global Fight Against Human Trafficking” (2012–13) 9 Eyes on the ICC 53 at 57–58 Google Scholar; BREAKTONE, Elizabeth, FUNK, T. Markus, and HIROSE, Paul O., “The Devil is in “Where to Disclose” Supply Chain Details” Law 360 (14 February 2013)Google Scholar, online: Law360 <www.law360.com/articles/415030/the-devil-is-in-where-to-disclose-supply-chain-details>.

88. KENDALL, supra note 40.

89. DRYHURST, Karin, “Liability Up the Supply Chain: Corporate Accountability for Labour Trafficking” (2012–13) 45 New York University Journal of International Law and Politics 642 at 652–654 Google Scholar.

90. HODGE, David R., “Assisting Victims of Human Trafficking: Strategies to Facilitate Identification, Exit From Trafficking and the Restoration of Wellness” (2014) 59 Social Work 111 at 115–116 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

91. ELLIOT, Jessica, The Role of Consent in Human Trafficking (London/New York: Routledge, 2015) at 36 Google Scholar.

92. KORVINUS, Anna G., “Trafficking in Human Beings: Third Report of the Dutch National Rapporteur” (2005)Google Scholar, Bureau of the Dutch National Rapporteur on Trafficking in Human Beings at 15, online: <www.mvcr.cz/mvcren/file/trafficking-in-human-beings-report-2004.aspx>.

93. See “Human Trafficking: UK Responses”, online: <www.parliament.uk/briefing-papers/sn04324.pdf>.

94. FARLEY, Melissa, BINDEL, Julie, and GOLDING, Jacqueline M., Men Who Buy Sex, Who They Buy and What They Know (London/San Francisco: Eaves 4 Women & Prostitution Research and Education, 2009)Google Scholar, online: Prostitution Research and Education <http://www.eavesforwomen.org.uk/Documents/Recent_Reports/Men%20Who%20Buy%20Sex.pdf>.

95. BROWN, Louise, Sex Slaves: The Trafficking of Women in Asia (London: Virago, 2001)Google Scholar.

96. See U.S. v. Bonestroo [2012] W.L. 13704 (U.S. District Court, South Dakota); U.S. v. Jungers [2013] 834 F.Supp.2d 1930 (U.S. District Court, South Dakota); RAYMOND, Janice G., Not A Chance, Not A Job: Exposing The Myths About Prostitution and the Global Sex Trade (Dulles, VA: Potomac Books, 2013) at 176 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

97. Supra note 63.

98. See The Protection Project Review of the Trafficking in Persons Report (Washington, DC: Johns Hopkins, 2014); Sadruddin et al., supra note 67 at 391–4; Chuang, supra note 64 at 471; Hathaway, supra note 22 at 51.

99. Trafficking in Persons Report, 2014, supra note 76.

100. See also NGUYEN, Jennifer, “The Three Ps of the Trafficking Victims Protection Act: Unaccompanied Undocumented Minors and the Forgotten P in the William Wilberforce Trafficking Prevention Reauthorization Act” (2010–11) 17 Washington & Lee Journal of Civil Rights and Social Justice 187 at 191 Google Scholar.

101. See paper submitted for the expert consultation convened by the UN Special Rapporteur on Trafficking in Persons, especially Women and Children: GALLAGHER, Anne T., “The Right to an Effective Remedy For Victims of Human Trafficking in Persons: A Survey of International Law and Policy” (Bratislava, 22–23 November 2010), at 4 Google Scholar, online: <http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Trafficking/Bratislava_Background_paper1.pdf>.

102. CDEBACA, Luis, “Successes And Failures in International Human Trafficking Law” (2011) 33 Michigan Journal of International Law 37 at 49 Google Scholar.

103. Case of Rantsev v. Cyprus and Russia [2010] ECHR (Application No. 25965/04), paras. 232, 244, 245, 285, 289, 290.

104. PATI, Roza, “States’ Positive Obligations with Respect to Human Trafficking: The European Court of Human Rights Breaks New Ground in Rantsev v. Cyprus and Russia” (2011) 29 Boston University International Law Journal 79 at 81 Google Scholar.

105. CRAWFORD, James, “Human Rights and State Responsibility” (2006) 12th Raymond and Beverly Sackler Distinguished Lecture Series, Thomas J. Dodd Research Centre, University of Connecticut, US Google Scholar.

106. GALLAGHER, Anne T., The International Law of Human Trafficking (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010) at 218 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

107. HADDADIN, Youla and KLIMOVA-ALEXANDER, Ilona, “Human Rights Based to Trafficking: The Work of the Office of the United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights” (2013) 52 The Judges’ Journal 22 Google Scholar.

108. International Law Commission Draft Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts, Report of the International Law Commission on the Work of its Fifty-third Session, UNGAOR, 56th Sess, Supp. No. 10, at 43, UN Doc. A/56/10 (2001).

109. Velasquez Rodriguez Case, Judgment of 29 July 1988, Int. Amer. Court of Human Rights (Ser. C) No. 4(1988), online: University of Minnesota Human Rights Library <http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/iachr/b_11_12d.htm>.

110. Art. 2, International Law Commission’s Draft Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts, supra note 108.

111. Nicaragua Case, Merits, at 62, 64–5, cited in ILC Commentary, at art. 8, para. 4.

112. Prosecutor v. Tadic[1999] Case No. IT-94-1-A, ICTY Appeals Chamber, 15 July 1999, at para. 117, cited in ILC Commentary, at art. 8, para. 5.

113. Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro), ICJ Gen. List No. 91, decided 26 February 2007 [Bosnian Genocide case].

114. Bosnian Genocide case, ibid. at para. 404.

115. ILC Commentary, at art. 8, para.1. See also the Commentary to art. 11, at para. 2: “The general principle, drawn from state practice and international judicial decisions, is that the conduct of a person or group of persons not acting on behalf of the state is not considered as an act of the state under international law. This conclusion holds irrespective of the circumstances in which the private persons acts and of the interests affected by the person’s conduct.”

116. ILC Commentary, at part one, chapter II, para. 4. An example drawn from the Tehran Hostages case is used to illustrate this point: The seizing of the American embassy in Tehran by private individuals did not immediately engage the international legal responsibility of the state of Iran. It was only after the government failed to assert control over the situation that the conduct of the private individuals became attributable to the state itself. It was therefore Iran’s failure “to take appropriate steps” to protect the Embassy that “by itself, constituted a clear and serious violation”: United States Diplomatic and Consular Staff in Tehran (United States v. Iran), ICJ Rep. (1980) 3, at para. 67. The Court noted that the Iranian authorities were aware of their obligations to protect consular and diplomatic staff and premises and that they had the means at their disposal but “completely failed to comply”: ibid., at para. 68 [Tehran Hostages case].

117. Supra note 76, para. 173.

118. LAWSON, Rick, “Out of Control—State Responsibility and Human Rights: Will the ILC’s Definition of the ‘Act of State’ Meet the Challenges of the 21st Century” in Monique C. CASTERMANS, G.J.H. Van HOOF, and J. SMITH, eds., The Role of Nation States in the 21st Century—Essays in Honor of Peter Baeher (The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 1998), 91–116 Google Scholar.

119. See Office of the Special Representative and Co-coordinator For Combating Trafficking in Human Beings, “How to Prevent Human Trafficking For Domestic Servitude in Diplomatic Households and Protect Private Domestic Workers” (2014), online: Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, Vienna, <http://www.osce.org/handbook/domesticservitude?download=true>; WALKER, Kirsty, “Crimes of Untouchable Diplomats Accused of Sex Assaults, Human Trafficking and £36 Million in Unpaid Fines” Daily Mail (29 June 2010)Google Scholar, online: Daily Mail <http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1290341/Diplomats-accused-sex-assaults-human-trafficking-36m-unpaid-fines.html>; LAGON, Mark P., “Fighting Human Trafficking: Transformative Versus ‘Cotton-Candy’ Partnerships” in Mark P. LAGON and Anthony C. AREND, eds., Human Dignity and the Future of Global Institutions (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2014), at 233 Google Scholar.

120. WEISER, Benjamin and YEE, Vivian, “Claim Against Indian Diplomat Has Echoes of Previous Cases” The New York Times (9 January 2014), online: New York Times <http://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/10/nyregion/claims-of-diplomats-mistreating-household-staff-are-far-from-the-first.html?_r=0>>Google Scholar; SEMPLE, Kirk, “House Keeper in New Jersey Accuses Peruvian Diplomat of Human Trafficking” The New York Times (25 June 2013)Google Scholar, online: New York Times <http://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/26/nyregion/housekeeper-accuses-a-peruvian-diplomat-of-human-trafficking.html>; ROYCE-BARTLETTE, Lindy and LABOTT, Elise, “Official: Human Trafficking Probe at Saudi Diplomat’s House” CNN News (3 May 2013)Google Scholar, online: CNN News <http://www.cnn.com/2013/05/02/us/dc-diplomat-investigation/>; Robert BOOTH, “Saudi and Emirati Diplomats Accused of Trafficking Staff into UK” The Guardian (22 February 2010), online: The Guardian <http://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/feb/22/saudiarabia-united-arab-emirates>.

121. KAPPUS, Jennifer H., “Does Immunity Mean Impunity? The Legal and Political Battle of Household Workers Against Trafficking and Exploitation by Their Foreign Diplomat Employers” (2010–11) 61 Case Western Reserve Law Review 269 at 272 Google Scholar.

122. RUVO, Christopher, “Non Profit Analyzes How Apparel Brands Address Child Labour, Forced Labour” (2013) 27 Stitches Magazine 26 at 26 Google Scholar.

123. EUR-Lex, online: <http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX:52013SC0127>.

124. JAGERS, Nicola and RIJKEN, Conny, “Prevention of Human Trafficking For Labour Exploitation: The Role of Corporations” (2014) 12 North Western Journal of International Human Rights 47 at 61 Google Scholar.

125. Johnson, supra note 38 at 36.

126. Jagers and Rijken, supra note 124 at 60.

127. Gallagher, supra note 106 at 447.

128. According to the United Nations Convention on Corruption, which entered into force on 14 December 2005, a “public official” is defined in art. 2(a) as (i) any person holding a legislative, executive, administrative or judicial office of a State Party, whether appointed or elected, whether permanent or temporary, whether paid or unpaid, irrespective of that person’s seniority; (ii) any other person who performs a public function, including for a public agency or public enterprise, or provides a public service, as defined in the domestic law of the State Party and as applied in the pertinent area of law of that State Party; (iii) any other person defined as a “public official” in the domestic law of a State Party. However, for the purpose of some specific measures contained in Chapter II of the Convention, “public official” may mean any person who performs a public function or provides a public service as defined in the domestic law of the State Party and as applied in the pertinent area of law of that State Party.

129. Project PACO (Programme Against Corruption and Organized Crime in Southeastern Europe) NETWORKING, “Trafficking in Human Beings and Corruption: Report of the Regional Seminar”, Economic Crimes Division, Council of Europe, 2002, online: Project PACO Networking <http://lastradainternational.org/lsidocs/297%20Trafficking%20and%20Corruption%20(PACO).pdf>.

130. Vandenberg, supra note 6 at 326.

131. Trafficking in Persons Report, 2014, supra note 76 at 237, 262, 265, 268.

132. AGBU, Osita, “Corruption and Human Trafficking: The Nigerian Case” (2003) 4 West Africa Review 1 at 4 Google Scholar.

133. Kendall, supra note 40 at 41.

134. See Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, Press Release, “Protect the Victims, Punish the Traffickers, UN Rights Expert Urges Belize” (20 December 2013), online: OHCHR <http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=14135&>.

135. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, “Issue Paper: The Role of Corruption in Trafficking in Persons, United Nations, Vienna” (2011), online: UNODC <https://www.unodc.org/documents/human-trafficking/2011/Issue_Paper_-_The_Role_of_Corruption_in_Trafficking_in_Persons.pdf>.

136. Ibid., at 29.

137. Public Law No. 106-386 (2000).

138. U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, “Questions and Answers: Victims of Human Trafficking, T Non-immigrant Status”, online: U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services <http://www.uscis.gov/humanitarian/victims-human-trafficking-other-crimes/victims-human-trafficking-t-nonimmigrant-status/questions-and-answers-victims-human-trafficking-t-nonimmigrant-status>.

139. SCHLOENHARDT, Andreas and LOONG, Mark, “Return and Reintegration of Human Trafficking Victims from Australia” (2011) 23 International Journal of Refugee law 143 at 149–150 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

140. CHUANG, Janie, “Beyond a Snapshot: Preventing Human Trafficking in the Global Economy” (2006) 13 Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies 137 at 162 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

141. If one sees the statistics of governmental support to the UK protection homes as shown by the Poppy Project, the constraints of the government become amply clear.

142. Nguyen, supra note 100 at 209–11.

143. For example, see Asylum Aid, “Government Decision on the Poppy Project is Deeply Worrying” (3 April 2011), online: Womensgrid Archive <http://www.womensgrid.org.uk/archive/2011/04/21/government-decision-on-the-poppy-project-is-deeply-worrying-asylum-aid/>.

144. UK Home Office, “Human Trafficking: The Government’s Strategy” (29 July 2011), online: Gov.UK <http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/publications/crime/human-trafficking-strategy?=Binary> (last accessed 24 February 2016), at 8.

145. BALDWIN, Susie P., EISENMAN, David P., SAYLES, Jennifer N., RYAN, Gery, and CHUANG, Kenneth S., “Identification of Human Trafficking Victims in Health Care Settings” (2011) 13 Health and Human Rights 36 Google ScholarPubMed.

146. Ibid.

147. LEDERER, Laura J. and WETZEL, Christopher A., “The Health Consequences of Sex Trafficking and Their Implications for Identifying Victims in Healthcare Facilities” (2014) 23 Annals of Health Law 61 at 65 Google Scholar.

148. ICESCR, supra note 24; the European Social Charter, 18 October 1961, 529 U.N.T.S. 89, art. 13 (entered into force 26 February 1965), online: Council of Europe <http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/en/Treaties/Html/035.htm>; and the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, 2 October 2000, 2000/C 364/01, art. 35 (entered into force 7 December 2000), online: Official Journal of the European Communities <http://www.europarl.europa.eu/charter/pdf/text_en.pdf>. For the right to health, see also the Convention on the Rights of the Child, supra note 26, and the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, supra note 25.

149. Committee on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights, General Comment No. 20, Non-discrimination in Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (art. 2), U.N. Doc. No. E/C.12/GC/20 (2009), online: UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights <http://www.refworld.org/docid/4a60961f2.html>.

150. Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women [CEDAW] General Recommendation No. 24, Women and Health (art. 12). A/54/38/Rev.1, chap. 1 (1999), online: UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women <http://www.refworld.org/docid/453882a73.html>.

151. Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families, G.A. Resolution 45/158 (1990), online: Office of the High Commissioner of Human Rights <http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cmw/cmw.htm>.

152. States News Service, “AG Schmidt Asks Congress to Fund Anti-Human Trafficking Programs” (5 November 2012).

153. FIELDS, Sydney, “Combating Human Trafficking: Engaging the Private Sector” Spotlight (10 January 2013)Google Scholar, online: Stimson <http://www.stimson.org/spotlight/combating-human-trafficking-engaging-the-private-sector/>.

154. ATAPATTU, Sumudu A., Emerging Principles of International Environmental Law (Ardsley, NY: Transnational Publishers, 2007) at 379 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; DESAI, Bharat H. and SIDHU, Balraj K., “Making Green Justice Work: The Amritsar Dialogue” (2014) 44 Environmental Policy and Law 298 at 299 Google Scholar.

155. Jutta BRUNEE and Charlotte STRECK, “The UNFCCC as a Negotiation Forum: Towards Common But More Differentiated Responsibilities” (2013) 13 Climate Policy 589.

156. Report of the Independent Expert on Human Rights and International Solidarity, Virginia Dandon, Gen. Assembly Document, A/HRC/26/34/Add.1, art. 6, para 4, online: Office of the High Commissioner of Human Rights <www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/RegularSessions/Session26/Pages/ListReports.aspx>.

157. Lagon, supra note 119 at 242.

158. See KAPUR, Ratna, “Coss-border Movements and the Law: Renegotiating the Boundaries of Difference” in Kamala KEMPADOO, Jyoti SANGHERA, and Bandana PATTANAIK, eds., Trafficking and Prostitution Reconsidered: New Perspectives on Migration, Sex Work and Human Rights 2nd ed. (Boulder, CO: Paradigm Publishers, 2012), at 25 Google Scholar; Lee, supra note 2 at 44–7.

159. National Referral Mechanism [NRM] Statistics, “Human Trafficking Statistics: End of Year Summary 2014” (2014), online: National Crime Agency (UK) <http://www.nationalcrimeagency.gov.uk/publications/national-referral-mechanism-statistics/502-national-referral-mechanism-statistics-end-of-year-summary-2014/file>.

160. BOYER, Dave, “Slavery Concerns Rise over Trans-Pacific Partnership” The Washington Times (4 August 2015)Google Scholar, online: Washington Times <http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2015/aug/4/slavery-concerns-rise-over-trans-pacific-partnersh/?page=all>.

161. See BRACKEN, Len, “TPP Ministers Plan December Meeting in Singapore as Negotiations Continue” 30 International Trade Reporter (BNA) 1663 (31 October 2013)Google Scholar.

162. ROSENBERG, Matthew and COCHRANE, Joe, “Key Shift on Malaysia Before Trans-Pacific Partnership Deal” (27 July 2015)Google Scholar, online: New York Times <http://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/28/world/asia/thailands-low-ranking-in-human-trafficking-report-could-hamper-trade-deal.html?_r=0>.

163. BHALA, Raj, “Trans-Pacific Partnership or Trampling Poor Partners? A Tentative Critical Review” (2014) 11 Manchester Journal of International Economic Law 2 at 52 Google Scholar.