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Southeast Asian Approaches to Maritime Boundaries

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  13 December 2013

Tara DAVENPORT
Tara DAVENPORT*
Affiliation:
Centre for International Law at the National University of Singaporet.davenport711@gmail.com
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Abstract

From both a geographical and geopolitical perspective, Southeast Asia is a particularly interesting case-study for maritime delimitation. Despite the existence of significant obstacles to maritime boundary-making, including a complex coastal geography and a multitude of territorial and jurisdictional disputes, Southeast Asia has been described as the “scene of very active and innovative ocean boundary diplomacy”. The objective of this paper is to examine Southeast Asian approaches to maritime boundaries. First, it seeks to identify whether there are common trends and practices in Southeast Asian practice which have contributed to the high number of maritime boundaries concluded by Southeast Asian states. Second, the paper will explore the extent to which Southeast Asian practice has contributed to the normative development of international law on maritime delimitation. Third, the paper will discuss whether there are any lessons to be learned from Southeast Asian practice that can be used to settle unresolved maritime boundary issues in the region.

Type
Articles
Information
Asian Journal of International Law , Volume 4 , Issue 2 , July 2014 , pp. 309 - 357
Copyright
Copyright © Asian Journal of International Law 2013 

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Footnotes

*

Research Fellow, Centre for International Law (CIL) at the National University of Singapore (NUS).

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26. UNCLOS, supra note 6. Cambodia signed UNCLOS on 1 July 1983 but has not ratified it. Brunei ratified UNCLOS on 5 November 1996, Indonesia on 3 February 1986, Laos on 5 June 1998, Malaysia on 14 October 1996, Myanmar on 21 May 1996, the Philippines on 8 May 1984, Singapore on 17 November 1994, Thailand on 15 May 2011, and Vietnam on 25 July 1994.

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43. Pursuant to UNCLOS, supra note 6, arts. 74(3), 83(3).

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45. See Dispute Concerning Delimitation of the Maritime Boundary Between Bangladesh and Myanmar in the Bay of Bengal (Bangladesh/Myanmar), Case No. 16, Judgment dated 14 March 2012, International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS), online ITLOS: 〈http://www.itlos.org/index.php?id=108&L=1%2F〉.

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55. Ibid., art. 4(1).

56. Ibid., arts. 4(2), 1(1)(b).

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58. The agreement is not in force yet, reportedly because it contains references to the 1989 Timor Gap Treaty which has now been replaced by the 2002 Timor Sea Treaty between Australia and East Timor.

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60. Ibid., art. 7.

61. UNCLOS, supra note 6, art. 47.

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65. Ibid., at 157.

66. Maritime Delimitation in the Black Sea (Romania v. Ukraine), [2009] I.C.J Rep. 61 at para. 137.

67. Ibid.

68. Maritime Delimitation and Territorial Questions between Qatar and Bahrain (Qatar v. Bahrain), [2001] I.C.J Rep. 40 at para. 212.

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71. While Malaysia has not formally claimed straight baselines, Malaysia issued a map in 1979 (New Map Showing the Territorial Waters and Continental Shelf Boundaries of Malaysia 1979) which suggests that it has employed a system of straight baselines arguably inconsistent with Article 7 of UNCLOS. While this has not been subject to objections from other states, “it appears that this has more to do with the fact that they have not been officially announced and publicized rather than because they necessarily meet the criteria set out in UNCLOS Article 7”. See Sam BATEMAN and Clive SCHOFIELD, “State Practice Regarding Straight Baselines in East Asia - Legal, Technical and Political Issues in a Changing Environment”, Paper Presented at Difficulties in Implementing the Provisions of UNCLOS, organized by the Advisory Board on the Law of the Sea (ABLOS), Monaco, 16–17 October 2008, online: University of New South Wales 〈http://www.gmat.unsw.edu.au/ablos/ABLOS08Folder/Session7-Paper1-Bateman.pdf〉.

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75. Vietnam claimed straight baselines in 1977, which has been described as particularly radical and far from the requirements established in art. 7 of UNCLOS. Vietnam's claims have been subject to both US and Thai protests: ibid.

76. Archipelagic baselines and archipelagic waters were accepted in Part V of UNCLOS, supra note 6.

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79. Under art. 4 of the 1958 Territorial Seas Convention, only states whose “coastline is deeply indented and cut into” or which have “a fringe of islands along the coast in its immediate vicinity” can draw straight baselines. Malaysia had acceded to the Territorial Seas Convention on 21 December 1960.

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89. North Sea Continental Shelf Cases, [1969] I.C.J Rep. 3; Delimitation of the Maritime Boundary in the Gulf of Maine Area (Canada/US), [1984] I.C.J Rep. 246; Tunisia/Libya Case, supra note 52; Continental Shelf (Libya v. Malta), [1985] I.C.J Rep. 13; Guinea/Guinea-Bissau Maritime Delimitation Case, Decision of 14 February 1985, 25 I.L.M 252 (1986); St Pierre and Miquelon Case, 31 I.L.M (1992).

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99. See, for example, Arbitration between Barbados and Trinidad and Tobago, Relating to the Delimitation of the Exclusive Economic Zone and the Continental Shelf Between Them (Barbados/Trinidad and Tobago), Award, (2006) 45 I.L.M. 798 at para. 242.

100. Romania/Ukraine, supra note 66 at para. 115−22.

101. These are the 1971 Indonesia-Australia (on behalf of Papua New Guinea) Continental Shelf Delimitation (Arafura Sea) (No. 3 in Table 1); 1971 Indonesia-Thailand Continental Shelf Delimitation (Straits of Malacca and Andaman Sea) (No. 4 in Table 1); 1973 Indonesia-Australia (on behalf of Papua New Guinea) Delimitation (Arafura Sea) (No. 7 in Table 1); 1974 Indonesia-India Continental Shelf Delimitation (Andaman Sea) (No. 9 in Table 1); 1977 Indonesia-India Continental Shelf Delimitation (Andaman Sea) (No. 11 in Table 1); 1978 India-Thailand Continental Shelf Delimitation (Andaman Sea) (No. 12 in Table 1); 1979 Malaysia-Thailand Territorial Sea Delimitation (Straits of Malacca and Gulf of Thailand) (No. 15 in Table 1); 1979 Malaysia-Thailand Continental Shelf Delimitation (Gulf of Thailand) (No. 16 in Table 1); 1980 Myanmar-Thailand Delimitation (Andaman Sea) (No. 17 in Table 1); 1980 Indonesia-Papua New Guinea Delimitation (Pacific Ocean) (No. 18 in Table 1); 1993 India-Thailand Continental Shelf Delimitation (Andaman Sea) (No. 21 in Table 1); 1993 India-Myanmar-Thailand Continental Shelf Delimitation (Andaman Sea) (No. 22 in Table 1); 1995 Malaysia (Johor)-Singapore Territorial Waters Delimitation (Johor Straits) (No. 23 in Table 1); 1997 Australia-Indonesia Delimitation (Timor Sea) (No. 24 in Table 1); 1997 Thailand-Vietnam Delimitation (Gulf of Thailand) (No. 25 in Table 1).

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104. This was recognized in the North Sea Continental Shelf Cases, supra note 89.

105. Libya/Malta, supra note 89.

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109. Ibid.

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113. Ibid.

114. Ibid., at 1383.

115. Ibid., at 1379.

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117. Ibid., art. 121(3).

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126. Ibid., at 1335.

127. Ibid., at 1329.

128. Ibid., at 1332.

129. Ibid., at 1330.

130. Ibid.

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137. Ibid., at 3753.

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140. Ibid., at 4310.

141. Ibid.

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144. Art. IV, 1979 Malaysia-Thailand Continental Shelf Delimitation (Gulf of Thailand) (No. 16 in Table 1).

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148. Art. 3, 2003 Indonesia-Vietnam Continental Shelf Delimitation (South China Sea) (No. 27 in Table 1).

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165. Djuanda Declaration, 13 December 1957.

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167. UNCLOS, supra note 6, arts. 74(3), 83(3) (emphasis added).

168. Guyana/Suriname Arbitration, UN Law of the Sea Annex VII Arbitral Tribunal, Award of 17 September 2007, at para. 460, online: Permanent Court of Arbitration 〈http://www.pca-cpa.org/upload/files/Guyana-Suriname%20Award.pdf〉.

169. Ibid.

170. See, generally, ss. 3.3–3.7 of Ben MILLIGAN, Legal and Policy Options for the Provisional Joint Management of Maritime Spaces Subject to Overlapping Jurisdictional Claims, Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Woollongong.

171. Ibid.

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175. North Sea Continental Shelf Sea Cases, supra note 89 at para. 99.

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177. The Government of the State of Eritrea v. The Government of the Republic of Yemen (1999), 119 I.L.R. at 417, (1999), Award Of The Arbitral Tribunal In The Second Stage Of The Proceedings (Maritime Delimitation), online: PCA-CPA 〈http://www.pca-cpa.org/upload/files/EY%20Phase%20II.PDF〉.

178. See 1979 Malaysia-Thailand Continental Shelf Delimitation (Gulf of Thailand) (No. 16 in Table 1).

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180. It should be borne in mind that negotiations of UNCLOS were going on at this point in time and the exact effect of islands in generating maritime zones or their effect in maritime delimitation was not clear.

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183. Ibid., at 303.

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189. Ibid.

190. Thomas MENSAH, “Joint Development Zones as an Alternative Dispute Settlement Approach in Maritime Boundary Delimitation” in Ranier LAGONI and Daniel VIGNES, eds., Maritime Delimitation (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2006) 143 at 149 Google Scholar

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192. For example, the 2002 Australia-East Timor Provisional Arrangement, art. 11 of the 2002 Timor Sea Treaty, provides that Australia shall facilitate as a matter of priority training and employment opportunities for East Timorese nationals and permanent representatives.

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194. Jonathan CHARNEY and Lewis ALEXANDER, eds., International Maritime Boundaries, Vol. III (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1998) at 2336Google Scholar

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196. See, for example, the 1982 Cambodia-Vietnam Provisional Arrangement (No. 31 in Table 1); the 1999 Malaysia-Vietnam-Thailand Provisional Arrangement (Gulf of Thailand) (No. 34 in Table 1); the 2001 Cambodia-Thailand Provisional Arrangement (No. 37 in Table 1); and the 2005 China-Vietnam-Philippines Provisional Arrangement (No. 38 in Table 1).

197. The 1979/1990 Malaysia-Thailand Provisional Arrangement (No. 30 in Table 1); the 1989 Australia-Indonesia Provisional Arrangement (No. 32 in Table 1); the 1992 Malaysia-Vietnam Provisional Arrangement (No. 33 in Table 1); and the 2002 Australia-East Timor Provisional Arrangement (No. 35 in Table 1).

198. See, for example, the 1979/1990 Malaysia-Thailand Provisional Arrangement (No. 30 in Table 1); and the 1992 Malaysia-Vietnam Provisional Arrangement (No. 33 in Table 1).

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201. Ibid., at 80. Kaye suggests that the reason for the disparity in the tax revenues in Indonesia's favour is due to several reasons. First, the fact that Indonesia had a stronger position on maritime delimitation and needed a greater incentive for participation played a role in Indonesia having to allocate a lower share of its revenue in Area C. Second was the fact that Area B under Australia's control was larger than Area C under Indonesia's control and thus, while Australia would be surrendering a greater share of its tax revenue, the size of that revenue would be far larger than Indonesia's tax return from Area C.

202. The north boundary of Area A reflects Australia's position with regard to where it believes a permanent boundary should be established, and the south boundary of Area A indicates Indonesia's view of the seabed boundary, based on an approximate median line between Australia and Indonesia: ibid., at 81.

203. Ibid.

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207. ASEAN and China are now attempting to negotiate a code of conduct in the South China Sea: see “ASEAN Welcomes Start of South China Sea Code of Conduct Talks” Channel NewsAsia (30 June 2013), online: Channel NewsAsia 〈http://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/asiapacific/asean-welcomes-start-of/729504.html〉.

208. Memorandum of Understanding Between the Government of the Republic of Indonesia and the Government of Malaysia in Respect of the Common Guidelines Concerning Treatment of Fishermen by Maritime Law Enforcement Agencies of the Republic of Indonesia and Malaysia, 27 January 2012.

209. I Made Andi ARSANA, “Indonesia-Malaysia Deal Is Good News for Fishermen” Jakarta Post, 30 April 2012. Online: 〈http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2012/04/30/indonesia-malaysia-deal-good-news-fishermen.html〉.

210. Ibid.

211. For example, states can come to a special agreement to refer their disputes to an arbitral tribunal or to the ICJ (art. 36(1), ICJ Statute).

212. UNCLOS, supra note 6, art. 286.

213. Ibid., art. 298(1).

214. Ibid.

215. KITTICHAISAREE, Kriangsak, The Law of the Sea and Maritime Boundary Delimitation in Southeast Asia (Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1987) at 103 Google Scholar

216. Ibid., at 104.

217. Ibid., at 103.

218. See statement by Thailand dated 15 May 2011 on the Ratification of UNCLOS, online: 〈http://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/convention_declarations.htm#Thailand%20Upon%20ratificatio〉.

219. Grisbadarna (Norway v. Sweden), (1910) A.J.I.L. 226; North Sea Continental Shelf Cases (1969), supra note 89; Anglo-French Continental Shelf Arbitration (France v. United Kingdom) (1977), 18 I.L.M. (1979) at 397–494; Aegean Sea Continental Shelf Case, [1978] I.C.J. Rep. 3; Tunisia/Libya Continental Shelf Case (1982), supra note 52; Gulf of Maine Case (1984), supra note 4; Libya/Malta Continental Shelf Cases (1985), supra note 89; Land, Island and Maritime Frontier Dispute (El Salvador/Honduras: Nicaragua Intervening), [1992] I.C.J. Rep. 351; St Pierre and Miquelon Case (1992), supra note 89; Case Concerning Maritime Delimitation in the Area Between Greenland and Jan Mayen (Denmark v. Norway), [1993] I.C.J. Rep. 38; Guinea-Bissau/Senegal Case (1985), supra note 89; Eritrea/Yemen Arbitral Award (1999), supra note 177; Qatar/Bahrain Case (2001), supra note 68; Cameroon/Nigeria Case (2002), supra note 90; Barbados v. Trinidad and Tobago (2006) 45 I.L.M. 798; Guyana/Suriname (2007), supra note 168; Territorial and Maritime Dispute between Nicaragua and Honduras in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Honduras), Judgment, I.C.J. Rep. 2007 at 659; Bangladesh/Myanmar (2012), supra note 45; Territorial and Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Judgment, 19 November 2012. There are also several pending maritime delimitation cases: Maritime Dispute (Peru v. Chile) (Peru initiated proceedings in the ICJ against Chile in 2008 but Judgment has not been issued); Croatia/Slovenia (On 4 November 2009, Croatia and Slovenia agreed to submit their territorial and maritime dispute to arbitration); Bangladesh/India (Bangladesh initiated arbitral proceedings under Annex VII of UNCLOS).

220. “Bangladesh and Myanmar Give ITLOS its First Maritime Boundary Case” IBRU News (21 December 2009), online: Durham University 〈http://www.dur.ac.uk/ibru/news/ibru_news/?itemno=9202〉. It has been described as “remarkable” that Bangladesh chose ITLOS instead of the Annex VII Arbitral Tribunal or the ICJ, both of which have experience in maritime delimitation disputes. It is said that the consensus between Myanmar and Bangladesh is due to the “tribunal's emphasis on and ability to provide expedience”, which is partly attributable to the reduction of disputes over arbitrators, which can delay proceedings: see Jared BISSINGER, “The Maritime Boundary Dispute between Bangladesh and Myanmar: Motivations, Potential Solutions, and Implications” (July 2010) 10 Asia Policy 103−42 at 130.

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223. Ibid., at 129.

224. Ibid., at 107.

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230. This obligation to negotiate in good faith was succinctly put by the ICJ in the North Sea Continental Shelf Cases, [1969] I.C.J. Rep. 3, para. 86 (a):

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231. Although this was arguably because Indonesia wanted Malaysia's support for its newly proposed concept of archipelagic waters. It has also now caused issues in the negotiation of EEZ boundaries with Malaysia.

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239. Ian TOWNSEND-GAULT and William STORMONT, “Offshore Petroleum Joint Development Arrangements: Functional Instrument? Compromise? Obligation?” in Gerald Blake et al, eds., The Peaceful Management of Transboundary Resources (London: Graham & Trotman Ltd and Kluwer Publishers Group, 1995) at 53 Google Scholar

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246. Sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, Middle Rocks and South Ledge (Malaysia/Singapore), Judgment, [2008] I.C.J. Rep. 12.

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249. Ibid., at 452.

250. See supra note 38.

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265. Ibid.