Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-4rdpn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-10T08:45:45.085Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The nature of nurture: Genetic influence on “environmental” measures

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 May 2011

Robert Plomin  and
C. S. Bergeman
Robert Plomin
Affiliation:
Center for Developmental and Health Genetics, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, Electronic mail: plominpvq@psuvm.bitnet
C. S. Bergeman
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Evidence for genetic influence on environmental measures will emerge in quantitative genetic analyses if genetically influenced characteristics of individuals are assessed by these environmental measures. Recent twin and adoption studies indicate substantial genetic influence when measures of the environment are treated as phenotypes in genetic analyses. Genetic influence has been documented for measures as diverse as videotaped observations of parental behavior toward their children, ratings by parents and children of their family environment, and ratings of peer groups, social support, and life events. Evidence for genetic influence on environmental measures includes some of the most widely used measures of environment – the Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment, the Family Environment Scales, and the Social Readjustment Rating Scale of life events, for example. The goal of this article is to document and discuss these findings and to elicit commentary that might help to shape the course of research on this topic, which has far-reaching implications for the behavioral and brain sciences.

Keywords

adoptionenvironmentegneticheredityheritabilityIQnaturenurturepersonalitytwins
Type
Target Article
Information
Behavioral and Brain Sciences , Volume 14 , Issue 3 , September 1991 , pp. 373 - 386
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1991

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aneshensel, C. S., Estrada, A. L., Hansell, M. J. & Clark, V. A. (1987) Social psychological aspects of reporting behavior: Lifetime depressive episode reports. Journal of Health and Social Behavior 28:232–46. [LW]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arsenian, J. & Arsenian, J. M. (1948) Tough and easy cultures. Psychiatry 11:377–85. [AC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bachman, J. G. (1970) The impact of family background and intelligence on tenth grade boys. Youth in transition, vol. 2. Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI. [RCJ]Google Scholar
Bachman, J. G., O'Malley, P. M. & Johnston, J. (1978) Adolescence to adulthood: Change and stability in the lives of young men. Youth in transition, vol. 6. Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI. [RCJ]Google Scholar
Baker, L. A. & Daniels, D. (1990) Nonshared environmental influences and personality differences in adult twins. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 58:103–10. [aRP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bell, R. Q. (1968) A reinterpretation of the direction of effects in socialization. Psychological Review 75:81–95. [aRP, DCR, IDW]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bem, D. J. (1983) Constructing a theory of the triple typology: Some (second) thoughts on nomothetic and idiographic approaches to personality. Journal of Personality 52:566–77. [AC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bem, D. J. & Funder, D. C. (1978) Predicting more of the people more of the time: Assessing the personality of situations. Psychological Review 85:485–501. [AC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bergeman, C. S. & Plomin, R. (1988) Parental mediators of the genetic relationship between the home environment and infant mental development. British Journal of Developmental Psychology 6:11–19. [aRP, IDW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bergeman, C. S., Plomin, R., Pedersen, N. L., McClearn, G. E. & Nesselroade, J. R. (1990) Genetic and environmental influences on social support: The Swedish Adoption/Twin Study of Aging (SATSA). Journal of Gerontology 45:101–06. [aRP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Billy, J. O. G. & Udry, J. R. (1985) Patterns of adolescent friendship and effects on sexual behavior. Social Psychology Quarterly 48:27–41. [AC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Block, J. & Block, J. H. (1981) Studying situatiorial dimensions: A grand perspective and some limited empiricism. In: Toward a psychology of situations, ed. Magnusson, D.. Erlbaum. [rRP, AC]Google Scholar
Bock, R. D. & Zimowski, M. F. (1987) Contributions of the biometrical approach to individual differences in personality measures. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 10:17. [PHS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bonner, J. T. (1987) The next big problem in developmental biology. American Zoologist 27:715–23. [RS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bouchard, P. R. & Lynch, C. B. (1989) Burrowing behavior in wild house mice: Variation within and between populations. Behavior Genetics 19:447–57. [MD]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bouchard, T. J. Jr. & McGue, M. (1990) Genetic and rearing environmental influences on adult personality: An analysis of adopted twins reared apart. Journal of Personality 58:263–92. [rRP, MM, LW]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bouchard, T. J. Jr., Lykken, D. T., McGue, M., Segal, N. L. & Tellegen, A. (1990) Sources of human psychological differences: The Minnesota study of twins reared apart. Science 250:223–28. [rRP, MM, AT]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Braungart, J. M., Plomin, R., DeFries, J. C. & Fulker, D. W. (in press) Genetics of the environment during infancy: A sibling adoption study. Behavior Genetics (abstract). [aRP]Google Scholar
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1975) Nature with nurture: A reinterpretation of the evidence. In: Race and IQ, ed. Montague, A.. Oxford University Press (New York). [UB]Google Scholar
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979) The ecology of human development. Harvard University Press. [UB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1986) Ecology of the family as a context for human development. Developmental Psychology 22:723–42. [UB, TDW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1989) Ecological systems theory. In: Six theories of child development, ed. Vasta, R.. Jai Press. [UB]Google Scholar
Bronfenbrenner, U. (in press) The ecology of cognitive development. In: Thinking in contexts, ed. Fischer, K. W. & Wozniak, R.. Erlbaum. [UB]Google Scholar
Bronfenbrenner, U. & Crouter, A. C. (1983) The evolution of environmental models in developmental research. In: History, theory, and methods, ed. Kessen, W. & Mussen, P. H., vol. 1 of Handbook of child psychology, 4th ed. Wiley. [UB]Google Scholar
Brown, G. G. & Harris, T. (1978) Social origins of depression. A study of psychiatric disorder in women. Tavistock. [FS]Google Scholar
Brown, G. W. & Rutter, M. (1966) The measurement of family activities and relationships. Human Relations 19:241–63. [RG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bryant, J., ed. (1990) Television and the American family. Erlbaum. [aRP]Google Scholar
Buss, D. M. (1984) Toward a psychology of person-environment correspondence: The role of spouse selection. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 47:361–77. [AC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bussey, K. & Bandura, A. (1984) Influence of gender constancy and social power on sex-linked modeling. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 47:1292–1302. [DCR]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cairns, J., Overbaugh, J. & Miller, S. (1988) The origin of mutants. Nature 335:142–54. [RS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cairns, R. B., Cairns, B. D., Neckerrnan, H. J., Gest, S. D. & Gariepy, J.-L. (1988) Social networks and aggressive behavior: Peer support or peer rejection? Developmental Psychology 24:815–23. [AC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caldwell, B. H. & Bradley, R. H. (1978) Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment. University of Arkansas Press. [aRP]Google Scholar
Capron, C. & Duyme, M. (1989) Assessment of effects of socioeconomic status on IQ in a full cross-fostering study. Nature 340:552–54. [MD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Capron, C. & Duyme, M. (in press) Is IQ a relevant trait for genetic analysis? Abstracts of the 20th Behavior Genetic Association Meeting. Behavior Genetics. [JH]Google Scholar
Caspi, A. & Bern, D. J. (1990) Personality continuity and change across the life course. In: Handbook of personality theory and research, ed. Pervin, L.. Guilford. [AC]Google Scholar
Caspi, A., Bern, D. J. & Elder, G. H. Jr., (1989) Continuities and consequences of interactional styles across the life course. Journal of Personality 57:375–406. [AC]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caspi, A., Elder, G. H. Jr. & Bern, D. J. (1987) Moving against the world: Life-course patterns of explosive children. Developmental Psychology 23:308–13. [AC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cattell, R. B. (1982) The inheritance of personality and ability: Research methods and findings. Academic Press. [MM]Google Scholar
Chipuer, H. M., Plomin, R., Pedersen, N. L., McClearn, G. E. & Nesselroade, J. R. (submitted) Genetic influence on family environment: The role of personality. [rRP]Google Scholar
Clarke, A. M. & Clarke, A. D. B. (1976) Early experience: Myth and evidence. Free Press. [DCR]Google Scholar
Cohen, D. J., Dibble, E. & Grawe, J. M. (1977) Fathers' and mothers' perceptions of children's personality. Archives of General Psychiatry 38:861–69. [aRP]Google Scholar
Coon, H., Fulker, D. W., DeFries, J. C. & Plomin, R. (1990) Home environment and cognitive ability of 7-year-old children in the Colorado Adoption Project: Genetic and environmental etiologies. Developmental Psychology 26:459–68. [aRP, DIB, HL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cullis, C. A. (1975) Environmentally induced DNA differences in flax. In: Modification of the information content of plant cells, ed. Markham, R., Davis, D. R., Hopwood, D. A. & Home, W. R.. North Holland. [RS]Google Scholar
Daniels, D. & Plomin, R. (1985) Differential experience of siblings in the same family. Developmental Psychology 2(1):747–60. [aRP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dawkins, R. (1982) The extended phenotype: The gene as the unit of selection. Oxford University Press, Oxford. [KSK]Google Scholar
De Candolle, A. (1873) Histoire des sciences et des savants depuis deux siécles. George. [DKS]Google Scholar
DeFries, J. C. & Fulker, D. W. (1985) Multiple regression of twin data. Behavior Genetics 15:467–73. [IDW]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DeFries, J. C., Gervais, M. C. & Thomas, E. A. (1978) Response to 30 generations of selection for open-field activity in laboratory mice. Behavior Genetics 8:3–13. [rRP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dunn, J. F. & Plomin, R. (1986) Determinants of maternal behavior towards infant siblings. British Journal of Developmental Psychology 4:127–37. [aRP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dunn, J. F., Plomin, R. & Daniels, D. (1986) Consistency and change in mothers' behavior towards young siblings. Child Development 57:348–56. [aRP]Google Scholar
Dunn, J. F., Plomin, R. & Nettles, M. (1985) Consistency of mothers' behavior towards infant siblings. Developmental Psychology 21:1188–95. [aRP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Edelman, G. M. (1987) Neural Darwinism: The theory of neuronal group selection. Basic Books. [ETh]Google Scholar
Edelman, G. M. (1988) Topobiology: An introduction to molecular embryology. Basic Books. [ETh]Google Scholar
Feldman, D. (1986) Nature's gambit. Basic Books. [DKS]Google Scholar
Finkel, D. & McGue, M. (submitted) Twenty-five year follow-up of child-rearing style: An investigation of retrospective data. [MM]Google Scholar
Folstein, S., Franz, M. I., Jensen, B. A., Chase, G. A. & Folstein, M. F. (1983) Conduct disorder and affective disorder among the offspring of patients with Huntington's chorea. Psychological Medicine 13:45–52. [MR]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Freud, S. (1964) Leonardo da Vinci and a memory of his childhood (trans. Tyson, A.). Norton (orig. pub. 1910). [DKS]Google Scholar
Fulker, D. W. & Eysenck, H. J. (1979) Nature and nurture: Heredity. In: The structure and measurement of intelligence, ed. Eysenck, H. J.. Springer-Verlag. [aRP]Google Scholar
Galton, F. (1869) Hereditary genius: An inquiry into its laws and consequences. Macmillan. [PHS, DKS, MD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Galton, F. (1888) Co-relations and their measurement, chiefly from anthropological data. Proceedings of the Royal Society 45:135–45. [DKS]Google Scholar
Goodman, R. & Stevenson, J. (1989) A twin study of hyperactivity: II. The aetiological role of genes, family relationships, and perinatal adversity. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 30:691–709. [RG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gottesman, I. I. & Shields, J. (1982) Schizophrenia: The epigenetic puzzle. Cambridge University Press (Cambridge). [MM]Google Scholar
Graham, P. & Stevenson, J. (1985) A twin study of genetic influences on behavioural deviance. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 24:33–41. [RG]Google Scholar
Haken, H. (1983) Synergetics: An introduction. Springer-Verlag. [ETh]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heath, A. C., Neale, M. C., Hewitt, J. K., Eaves, L. J. & Fulker, D. W. (1989) Testing structural equal models for twin data using LISREL-VI. Behavior Genetics 19:9–35. [JKH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Henderson, N. D. (1982) Human behavior genetics. Annual Review of Psychology 33:403–40. [PHS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Henderson, S., Duncan-Jones, P., Byrne, D. G. & Scott, R. (1980) Measuring social relationships: The interview schedule for social interaction. Psychological Medicine 10:723–34. [aRP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hirsch, J. (1981) To “unfrock the charlatans.” SAGE Race Relations Abstracts 6(2):1–65. Sage Publications, Ltd. [JH]Google Scholar
Hirsch, J. (1990) A nemesis for heritability estimation. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 13:137–38. [JH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hofer, M. (1981) The roots of human behavior: An introduction to the psychobiology of early development. W. H. Freeman. [RS]Google Scholar
Holden, G. & Edwards, L. (1989) Parental attitudes toward childrearing: Instruments, issues and implications. Psychological Bulletin 106:29–58. [TDW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holmes, T. H. (1979) Development and application of a quantitative measure of life change magnitude. In: Stress and mental disorder, ed. Barrett, J. E.. Raven. [aRP]Google Scholar
Holmes, T. H. & Rahe, R. H. (1967) The Social Readjustment Rating Scale. Journal of Psychosomatic Research 11:213–18. [aRP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Horn, J. M., Loehlin, J. C. & Willerman, L. (1979) Intellectual resemblance among adoptive and biological relatives: The Texas adoption project. Behavior Genetics 9:177–207. [MD]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
House, J. (1981) Social structure and personality. In: Social psychology: Sociological perspectives, ed. Rosenberg, M. & Turner, R. H.. Basic Books. [AC]Google Scholar
Jenkins, P. F. (1977) Cultural transmission of song patterns and dialect development in a free-living bird population. Animal Behaviour 25:50–78. [RS]Google Scholar
Jensen, A. R. (1980) Bias in mental testing. Free Press. [aRP]Google Scholar
Jinks, J. L. & Fulker, D. W. (1970) Comparison of the biometrical, genetical, MAVA, and classical approaches to the analysis of human behavior. Psychological Bulletin 73:311–49. [PHS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
John, O. (1990) The “Big Five” factor taxonomy: Dimensions of personality in the natural language and in questionnaires. In: Handbook of personality theory and research, ed. Pervin, L.. Guilford. [AC]Google Scholar
Johnston, T. (1987) The persistence of dichotomies in the study of behavioral development. Developmental Review 7:149–82. [RHB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnston, T. (1988) Developmental explanation and the ontogeny of birdsong: Nature/nurture redux. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 11:617–63. [RS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, J. S. (1980) Can genes choose habitats? Nature 286:757–58. [aRP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kamin, L. J. (1974) The science and politics of lQ. Erlbaum. [DAH]Google Scholar
Kandel, D. B. (1978) Homophily, selection and socialization in adolescent friendships. American Journal of Sociology 84:427–36. [AC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kempthorne, O. (1990) How does one apply statistical analysis to our understanding of the development of human relationships? Behavioral and Brain Sciences 13:138–39. [JH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
King, J. C. (1981) The biology of race. University of California Press. [PHS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kohn, M. & Schooler, C. (1983) Work and personality: An inquiry into social stratification. Ablex. [AC]Google Scholar
Lehtovaara, A. (1938) Psychologis'che Zwillingsuntersuchungen. Finnish Academy of Science. [aRP]Google Scholar
Levins, R. & Lewonton, R. (1985) The dialectical biologist. Harvard University Press. [DB]Google Scholar
Lewin, B. (1987) Genes. Wiley. [MD]Google Scholar
Lewin, K. (1935) A dynamic theory of personality. McGraw-Hill. [AC, UB]Google Scholar
Lichtenstein, P. & Pedersen, N. L. (in press) Genetic analyses of socioeconomic status in twins reared apart and twins reared together. Behavior Genetics (abstract). [aRP]Google Scholar
Lidz, T., Fleck, S. & Cornelison, A. (1965) Schizophrenia and the family. International University Press. [FS]Google Scholar
Locurto, C. (in press) The malleability of IQ as judged from adoption studies. Intelligence. [rRP]Google Scholar
Loehlin, J. C. (1982) Are personality traits differentially heritable? Behavior Genetics 12:417–28. [aRP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Loehlin, J. C. & Nichols, R. C. (1976) Heredity, environment and personality. University of Texas Press. [aRP, DAH, PHS]Google Scholar
Luce, R. D. & Tukey, J. W. (1964) Simultaneous conjoint measurement: A new type of fundamental measurement. Journal of Mathematical Psychology 1:1–27. [FLB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lumsden, C. J. (1989) Does culture need genes? Ethology and Sociobiology 10:11–28. [aRP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lykken, D. T., Bouchard, T. J., McGue, M. & Tellegen, A. (1990) The Minnesota twin family registry: Some initial findings. Ada Geneticae Medicae and Gemellologiae 36:35–70. [ETu]Google Scholar
Lyle, J. & Hoffman, H. R. (1972) Children's use of television and other media. In: Television in day-to-day life: Patterns of use, ed. Rubinstein, E. A., Comstock, G. A. & Murray, J. P.. U.S. Government Printing Office. [aRP]Google Scholar
Lytton, H. (1977) Do parents create or respond to differences in twins? Developmental Psychology 13:456–59. [aRP, IDW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lytton, H. (1980) Parent-child interaction: The socialization process observed in twin and singleton families. Plenum. [aRP; HL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lytton, H. (1990) Child and parent effects in boys' conduct disorder: A reinterpretation. Developmental Psychology 26:683–97. [HL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lytton, H., Watts, D. & Dunn, B. E. (1986) Stability and predictability of cognitive and social characteristics from age 2 to age 9. Genetic, Social and General Psychology Monographs 112:361–98. [HL]Google Scholar
Lytton, H., Watts, D. & Dunn, B. E. (1988) Stability of genetic determination from age 2 to age 9: A longitudinal twin study. Social Biology 35:62–73. [HL]Google ScholarPubMed
Main, M., Kaplan, N. & Cassidy, J. (1985) Security in infancy, childhood and adulthood: A move to the level of representation. In: Growing points of attachment theory and research. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, Serial No. 209, ed. Bretherton, I. & Waters, E.. 50:66–104. [aRP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martin, N. G., Boomsma, D. I. & Neale, M. C. (1989) Genetic analysis of twin and family data: Structural modeling using LISREL. Forward. Behavior Genetics 19:5–7. [DAH, JKH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martin, N. G., Eaves, L. J., Kearsey, M. J. & Davies, P. (1978) The power of the classical twin study. Heredity 40:97–116. [DAH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Martin, N. G., Eaves, L. J., Heath, A. C., Jardine, R., Feingold, L. M. & Eysenck, H. J. (1986) Transmission of social attitudes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 83:4364–368. [RCJ, ETu]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maynard Smith, J. & Vida, G., eds. (1990) Organizational constraints on the dynamics of evolution. Manchester Press. [RS]Google Scholar
McClearn, G. E., Pedersen, N. L., Plomin, R., Nesselroade, J. R., Friberg, L. & DeFaire, U. (submitted) Age and gender effects for individual differences in behavioral aging: The Swedish Adoption/Twin Study of Aging. [aRP]Google Scholar
McClintock, B. (1951) Chromosome organization and genie expression. Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology 16:13–47. [RS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McClintock, B. (1978) Mechanisms that rapidly reorganize the genome. Stadler Genetics Symposia 10:25–48. [RS]Google Scholar
McGuffin, P., Katz, R. & Bebbington, P. (1988) The Camberwell Collaborative Depression Study. III. Depression and adversity in the relatives of depressed probands. British Journal of Psychiatry 152:775–182. [rRP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mednick, S. A. & McNeil, T. F. (1968) Current methodology in research on the etiology of schizophrenia. Psychological Bulletin 70:681–93. [FS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moos, E. H. (1973) Conceptualizations of human environments. American Psychologist 28:652–65. [rRP, AC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moos, R. H. & Moos, B. S. (1981) Family Environment Scale manual. Consulting Psychologists Press. [aRP]Google Scholar
Mortimore, P., Sammons, P., Stoll, L., Lewis, D. & Ecob, R. (1988) School matters: The junior years. Open Books. [MR]Google Scholar
Morton, N. E. (1974) Analysis of family resemblance. I. Introduction. American Journal of Human Genetics 26:318–30. [DB]Google ScholarPubMed
Mosteller, M., Meyer, J. M., Eaves, L. J., Hewitt, J. K. & Schieken, R. M. (1990) The covariate in genetic analyses: A comparison of residuals analysis and the bivariate common factor model approach. Behavior Genetics 20:275–76. [JKH]Google Scholar
Moster, M. (1990) Stressful life events: Genetic and environmental components arid their relationship to affective symptomatology. Unpub. Doctoral dissertation, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN. [rRP, MM]Google Scholar
Newcomb, T. M. (1961) The acquaintance process. Wiley. [AC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nichols, R. C. (1965) The national merit twin study. In: Methods and goals in human behavior genetics. Academic Press. [PHS]Google Scholar
Osborne, T. (1980) Twins: Black and white. Foundation for Human Understanding. [PHS]Google Scholar
Oyama, S. (1985) The ontogeny of information: Developmental systems and evolution. Cambridge University Press (Cambridge). [rRP, RHB RS, ETh]Google Scholar
Paykel, E. S. (1983) Methodological aspects of life events research. Journal of Psychosomatic Research 27:341–52. [aRP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pearl, D., Bouthilet, L. & Lazar, J., eds. (1982) Television and behavior: Ten years of scientific progress and implications for the'eighties, vol. 1. U.S. Government Printing Office. [aRP]Google Scholar
Pedersen, N. L., McClearn, G. E., Plomin, R., Nesselroade, J. R., Berg, S. & DeFaire, U. (in press) The Swedish Adoption/Twin Study on Aging: An update. Ada Geneticae Medicae et Gemellologiae. [aRP]Google Scholar
Perry, D. G. & Bussey, K. (1979) The social learning theory of sex differences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 37:1699–1712. [DCR]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Persson, G. (1980) Prevalence of mental disorders in a 70-year-old urban population. Ada Psychiatrica Scandinavica 62:112–18. [aRP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Plomin, R. (1986) Development, genetics, and psychology. Erlbaum. [aRP]Google Scholar
Plomin, R. (1990a) The role of inheritance in behavior. Science 248:183–88. [rRP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Plomin, R. (1990b) Trying to shoot the messenger for his message. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 13:144. [JH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Plomin, R. & Daniels, D. (1987) Why are children in the same family so different from one another? Behavioral and Brain Sciences 10:1–16. [arRP, DIB, UB, AC, RCJ, DCR, PHS, SS, ETh]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Plomin, R. & Nesselroade, J. R. (1990) Behavioral genetics and personality change. Journal of Personality 58:191–220. [aRP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Plomin, R., Chipuer, H. M., & Loehlin, J. C. (1990) Behavioral genetics and personality. In: Handbook of personality theory and research, ed. Pervin, L. A.. Guilford. [aRP]Google Scholar
Plomin, R., Corley, R., DeFries, J. C. & Fulker, D. W. (1990) Individual differences in television viewing in early childhood: Nature as well as nurture. Psychological Science 1:371–77. [aRP, ETu]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Plomin, R., DeFries, J. C. & Fulker, D. W. (1988) Nature and nurture during infancy and early childhood. Cambridge University Press. [aRP, IDW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Plomin, R., DeFries, J. C., & Loehlin, J. C. (1977) Genotype-environment interaction and correlation in the analysis of human behavior. Psychological Bulletin 84:309–22. [rRP, MM, ETu]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Plomin, R., DeFries, J. C. & McClearn, G. E. (1990) Behavioral genetics: A primer, 2nd ed. W. H. Freeman. [arRP, FLB]Google Scholar
Plomin, R., Lichtenstein, P., Pedersen, N. L., McClearn, G. E. & Nesselroade, J. R. (1990) Genetic inluence on life events during the last half of the life span. Psychology and Aging 5:25–30. [arRP, MM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Plomin, R., Loehlin, J. C. & DeFries, J. C. (1985) Genetic and environmental components of “environmental” influences. Developmental Psychology 21:391–402. [aRP, DIB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Plomin, R., McClearn, G. E., Pedersen, N. L., Nesselroade, J. R. & Bergeman, C. S. (1988) Genetic influence on childhood family environment perceived retrospectively from the last half of the life span. Developmental Psychology 24:738–45. [arRP, PHS, LW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Plomin, R., McClearn, G. E., Pedersen, N. L., Nesselroade, J. R. & Bergeman, C. S. (1989) Genetic influence on adults' ratings of their current family environment. Journal of Marriage and the Family 51:791–803. [arRP, DAH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Plomin, R., Pedersen, N. L., McClearn, G. E., Nesselroade, J. R. & Bergeman, C. S. (1988) EAS temperaments during the last half of the life span: Twins reared apart and twins reared together. Psychology and Aging 3:4–50. [aRP, PHS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pollard, J. W. (1987) The moveable genome: Weismann's doctrine and new models for speciation. Revista di BiologialBiology Forum 80:11–54. [RS]Google ScholarPubMed
Quinton, D. & Rutter, M. (1988) Parenting breakdown: The making and breaking of inter-generational links. Aldershot: Avebury. [MR]Google Scholar
Ramey, C. T., Bryant, D. M. & Suarez, T. M. (1985) Preschool compensatory education and the modifiability of intelligence: A critical review. In: Current topics in human intelligence, ed. Detterman, D.. Ablex. [SS]Google Scholar
Rice, T., Fulker, D. W., DeFries, J. C. & Plomin, R. (1988) Path analysis of IQ during infancy and early childhood and an index of the home environment in the Colorado Adoption Project. Intelligence 12:27–45. [aRP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Richardson, L. F. (1913) The measurement of mental “nature” and the study of adopted children. Eugenic Review 4:391–94. [MD]Google Scholar
Richman, N., Stevenson, J. & Graham, P. J. (1982) Preschool to school: A behavioural study. Academic Press. [RG]Google Scholar
Roberts, R. C. (1967) Some concepts and methods in quantitative genetics. In: Behavior-genetic analysis, ed. Hirsch, J.. McGraw-Hill. [rRP, ETu]Google Scholar
Robins, L. (1966) Deviant children grown up. Williams & Wilkins. [MR]Google Scholar
Roe, A. (1953) The making of a scientist. Dodd, Mead. [DKS]Google Scholar
Rosambeau, M. (1987) How twins grow up. The Bodley Head. [DAH]Google Scholar
Roubertoux, P. L. & Capron, C. (1990) Are intelligence differences hereditarily transmitted? Cahiers de Psychologie Cognitive, European Bulletin of Cognitive Psychology 10:555–94. [MD, JH]Google Scholar
Roubertoux, P. L., Nosten-Bertrand, M. & Carlier, M. (1990) Additive and interactive effects between genotype and maternal environments, concepts and facts. Advances in the Study of Behavior 19:205–47. [MD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rowe, D. C. (1981) Environmental and genetic influences on dimensions of perceived parenting: A twin study. Developmental Psychology 17:203–08. [aRP, DB, DAH, HL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rowe, D. C. (1983) A biometrical analysis of perceptions of family environment: A study of twin and singleton sibling kinships. Child Development 54:416–23. [aRP, DAH, HL]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rowe, D. C. (1990) As the twig is bent? The myth of childrearing influences on personality development. Journal of Counseling and Development 68:606–11. [DCR]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rowe, D. C. & Osgood, D. W. (1984) Heredity and sociological theories of delinquency. American Sociological Review 49:526–40. [AC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rowe, D. C. & Plomin, R. (1981) The importance of nonshared (E1) environmental influences in behavioral development. Developmental Psychology 17:517–31. [DCR]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rushton, P. (1988) Epigenic rules in moral development: Distal-proximal approaches to altruism and aggression. Aggressive Behavior 14:35–50. [MM]3.0.CO;2-5>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rutter, M. (1978) Family, area and school influences in the genesis of conduct disorders. In: Aggression and antisocial behavior in childhood. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, Book series 1, ed. Hersov, L., Berger, M. & Shaffer, D.. Pergamon. [MR]Google Scholar
Rutter, M. & Brown, G. W. (1966) The reliability and validity of measures of family life and relationships in families containing a psychiatric patient. Social Psychiatry, 1:38–53. [RG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rutter, M., Maughan, B., Mortimore, P. & Ouston, J., & Smith, A. (1979) Fifteen thousand hours: Secondary schools and their effects on children. Open Books (Harvard University Press, 1980). [MR]Google Scholar
Scandalios, J. H. (1990) Genomic responses to environmental stress. Cambridge University Press. [rRP]Google ScholarPubMed
Scarr, S. (1968) Environmental bias in twin studies. Eugenics Quarterly 15:34–40. [aRP, RG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Scarr, S. (1987) Distinctive environments depend on genotypes. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 10:38–39. [IDW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scarr, S. & Carter-Saltzman, L. (1979) Twin method: Defense of a critical assumption. Behavior Genetics 9:527–42. [aRP, RG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Scarr, S. & McCartney, K. (1983) How people make their own environments: A theory of genotype → environment effects. Child Development 54:424–35. [arRP, RHB, AC, MM, SS, TDW]Google Scholar
Scarr, S. & Weinberg, R. A. (1978) The influence of “family background” on intellectual attainment. American Sociological Review 43:674–92. [SS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scarr, S. & Weinberg, R. A. (1983) The Minnesota adoption studies: Genetic differences and malleability. Child Development 54:260–67. [SS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schaefer, E. S. (1965) Children's reports of parental behavior: An inventory. Child Development 36:413–24. [aRP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schonemann, P. H. (1989) New questions about old heritability estimates. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society 27:175–78. [PHS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schonemann, P. H. (1990) Environmental versus genetic variance component models for identical twins: A critique of Jinks and Fulker's reanalysis of the Shields data. Cahiers de Psychologie Cognitive (European Bulletin of Cognitive Psychology) 10:451–73. [PHS]Google Scholar
Schonemann, P. H. & Schonemann, R. D. (1988) Environmental versus genetic models for Osborne's personality data on identical and fraternal twins (Technical Report No. 88&6). Purdue Mathematical Psychology Program. [PHS]Google Scholar
Scott, J. P. (1987) Why does human twin research not produce results consistent with those from nonhuman animals? Behavioral and Brain Sciences 10:39. [PHS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shields, J. (1962) Monotypic twins brought up apart and brought up together. Oxford University Press. [PHS]Google Scholar
Simonton, D. K. (1984) Genius, creativity and leadership. Harvard University Press. [DKS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simonton, D. K. (1987) Developmental antecedents of achieved eminence. Annals of Child Development 5:131–69. [DKS]Google Scholar
Simonton, D. K. (1988) Scientific genius: A psychology of science. Cambridge University Press. [rRP]Google Scholar
Smith, R. T. (1965). A comparison of socio-environmental factors in monozygotic and dizygotic twins, testing an assumption. In: Methods and goals in human behavior genetics, ed. Vandenberg, S. G.. Academic Press. [aRP]Google Scholar
Smith, D. J. & Tomlinson, S. (1989) The school effect: A study of multi-racial comprehensives. Policy Studies Institute. [MR]Google Scholar
Snyderman, M. & Rothman, S. (1988) The IQ controversy, the media and public policy. Transaction Books. [rRP]Google Scholar
Snyderman, M. & Rothman, S. (1990) The IQ controversy, the media and public policy. Transaction Publishers. [RCJ]Google Scholar
Socha, R. (1990a) Beyond genocentric concept of heredity. In: Evolutionary biology: Theory and practice, Part 2, ed. Leonovičová, V. V., Novák, V. J. A., Slipka, J. & Zemek, K.. Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences, Praha. [RS]Google Scholar
Socha, R. (1990b) From genocentric to multilevel concept of heredity: Implications for the evolutionary theory. Rivista di Biologial Biology Forum 83(2/3) (in press). [RS]Google Scholar
Socha, R. (in preparation) Developmental context of different reactions to the same environmental signal in the laboratory strain of Pyrrhocoris apterus (Heteroptera). [RS]Google Scholar
Socha, R. & Zemek, K. (1978) Some aspects of genotype-phenotype relationship during evolution from the point of view principle of natural selection. In: Natural selection, ed. Novák, V. J. A., Leonovicova, V. V. & Pacltová, B.. Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences, Praha. [RS]Google Scholar
Socha, R. & Zemek, K. (1982) Phylogenetic heredity: Role of changes in ontogenetic pattern not directly coded in the gametic DNA. In: Evolution and environment, ed. Novák, V. J. A. & Mlikovský, J.. Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences, Praha. [RS]Google Scholar
Socha, R. & Zemek, K. (1990) Memory systems in organisms: Genocentric versus multilevel dynamic concept. In: Evolutionary biology: Theory and practice, Part II, ed. Leonovičová, V. V., Novák, V. J. A., Slipka, J. & Zemek, K.. Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences, Praha. [RS]Google Scholar
Stattin, H. & Magnusson, D. (1990) Pubertal maturation in female development. Erlbaum. [AC]Google Scholar
Stevenson, J. & Graham, P. (1988) Behavioral deviance in 13-year-old twins: An item analysis. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 27:791–97. [RG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tambs, K., Sundet, J. M., Magnus, P. & Berg, K. (1989) Genetic and environmental contributions to the covariance between occupational status, educational attainment and IQ: A study of twins. Behavior Genetics 19:209–22. [aRP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Taubman, P. (1976) The determinants of earnings: Genetics, family and other environments: A study of white male twins. American Economic Review 66:858–70. [aRP]Google Scholar
Taylor, H. F. (1980) The IQ game. Rutgers University Press. [ETu]Google Scholar
Teasdale, T. W. (1979) Social class correlations among adoptees and their biological and adoptive parents. Behavior Genetics 9:103–14. [aRP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Teasdale, T. W. & Owen, D. R. (1981) Social class correlations among separately adopted siblings and unrelated individuals adopted together. Behavior Genetics 11:577–88. [aRP, MD]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tellegen, A., Lykken, D. T., Bouchard, T. J. Jr., Wilcox, K. J., Segal, N. L. & Rich, S. (1988) Personality similarity in twins reared apart and together. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 54:1031–39. [AT]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thelen, E. (1989) Self-organization in developmental processes: Can systems approaches work? In: Systems and development: The Minnesota symposia on child psychology, vol. 22, ed. Gunnar, M. & Thelen, E.. Erlbaum. [ETh]Google Scholar
Thelen, E. (1990) Dynamical systems and the generation of individual differences. In: Individual differences in infancy: Reliability, stability, prediction, ed. Colombo, J. & Fagen, J.. Erlbaum. [ETh]Google Scholar
Thelen, E., Kelso, J. A. S. & Fogel, A. (1987) Self-organizing systems and infant motor development. Developmental Review 7:39–65. [RS, ETh]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thoits, P. A. (1983). Dimensions of life events that influence psychological distress: An evaluation and synthesis of the literature. In: Psychosocial stress: Trends in theory and research, ed. Kaplan, H. A.. Academic Press. [aRP]Google Scholar
Thomas, W. I. & Thomas, D. (1928) The child in America. Knopf. [AC]Google Scholar
Thompson, L. A. (1990) Genetic contributions to early individual differences. In: Individual differences in infancy: Reliability, stability, prediction, ed. Colombo, J. & Fagen, J.. Erlbaum. [ET]Google Scholar
Thompson, L. A., Fulker, D. W., DeFries, J. C. & Plomin, R. (1986) Multivariate genetic analysis of “environmental” influences on infant cognitive development. British Journal of Developmental Psychology 4:347–53. [aRP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tomioka, K. & Chiba, Y. (1989) Light cycle during post-embryonic development affects adult circadian parameters of the cricket (Gryllus bimaculatus) optic lobe pacemaker. Journal of Insect Physiology 35:273–76. [RS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vogel, F. & Motulsky, M. D. (1986) Human genetics. Springer- Verlag. [MD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wachs, T. D. (1983) The use and abuse of environment in behavior genetic research. Child Development 54:396–407. [IDW]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wachs, T. D. (1987) Short term stability of aggregated and non-aggregated measures of parent behavior. Child Development 58:796–97. [TDW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wachs, T. D. (1988) Environmental assessment of developmentally disabled infants and preschoolers. In: Assessment of young developmentally disabled children, ed. Wachs, T. D. & Sheehan, R.. Plenum. [TDW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wachs, T. D. (in press) Environmental considerations in the study of organism-environment interaction with non-extreme groups. In: Conceptualization and measurement of organism-environment interaction, ed. Wachs, T. D. & Plomin, R.. American Psychological Association. [TDW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wachs, T. D. & Gruen, G. (1982) Early experience and human development. Plenum. [aRP, RS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wahlsten, D. (1990) Insensitivity of the analysis of variance to heredity-environment interaction. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 13:109–61. [FLB, JH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whowell, K. & Hay, D. A. (in preparation) Vocational choice in late adolescent twins. [DAH]Google Scholar
Will, C. M. (1986) Was Einstein right? Putting general relativity to the test. Basic Books. [FLB]Google Scholar
Wilson, P. T. (1934) A study of twins with special reference to heredity as a factor determining differences in environment. Human Biology 6:324–54. [aRP]Google Scholar
Yarrow, M., Campbell, J. & Burton, R. (1970) Recollections of childhood: A study of the retrospective method. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development 35. [TDW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zazzo, R. (1960) Les jumeaux, le couple et la personne. Presses Universitaires de France. [aRP]Google Scholar
Zemek, K., Mlikovsky, J. & Socha, R. (1985) Multilevel system of heredity and its ontogenetic and phylogenetic consequences. In: Evolution and morphogenesis, ed. Mlikovsky, J. & Novák, V. J. A.. Academia, Praha. [RS]Google Scholar