Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-8bhkd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-10T17:28:21.518Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Behaviorism at fifty

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 February 2010

B. F. Skinner
B. F. Skinner
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology and Social Relations, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. 02138
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Each of us is uniquely subject to certain kinds of stimulation from a small part of the universe within our skins. Mentalistic psychologies insist that other kinds of events, lacking the physical dimensions of stimuli, are accessible to the owner of the skin within which they occur. One solution often regarded as behavioristic, granting the distinction between public and private events and ruling the latter out of consideration, has not been successful. A science of behavior must face the problem of privacy by dealing with events within the skin in their relation to behavior, without assuming they have a special nature or must be known in a special way.

The search for copies of the world within the body (e.g. the sensations and images of conscious content) has also had discouraging results. The organism does not create duplicates: Its seeing, hearing, smelling, and so on are forms of action rather than of reproduction. Seeing does not imply something seen. We know that when we dream of wolves, no wolves are actually there; it is harder to understand that not even representations of wolves are there.

Mentalistic formulations create mental way stations. Where experimental analyses examine the effects of variables on behavior, mentalistic psychologies deal first with their effects on inferred entities such as feelings or expectations and then with the effects of these entities on behavior. Mental states thus seem to bridge gaps between dependent and independent variables, and mentalistic interpretations are particularly attractive when these are separated by long time periods. The practice confuses the order of events and leads to unfinished causal accounts.

Keywords

actionsbehaviorismconsciousnessimagesmentalismmethodologymind–body problemprivate eventsrepresentationself-reference
Type
Target Article
Information
Behavioral and Brain Sciences , Volume 7 , Issue 4 , December 1984 , pp. 615 - 621
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1984

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Attneave, F. (1960) In defense of homunculi. In: Sensory communication, ed. Rosenblith, W.. MIT Press. [WGL]Google Scholar
Barr, A., Cohen, P. R. & Feigenbaum, E. A., eds. (1982) The Handbook of Artificial Intelligence, vols. 1–3. William Kaufmann. [ML]Google Scholar
Berlin, B. & Kay, P. (1969) Basic color terms: Their universality and evolution. University of California Press. [TRZ]Google Scholar
Berwick, R. C. & Weinberg, A. (1983) The grammatical basis of linguistic performance. MIT Press. [JCM]Google Scholar
Bindra, D. (1978) How adaptive behavior is produced: A perceptual-motivational alternative to response-reinforcement. Behavioral and Brainmn Sciences 1:41–91. [FMT]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Black, M. (1962) Models and metaphors. Cornell University Press. [MB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Block, N., ed. (1980a) Readings in the philosophy of psychology, vol. 1. Harvard University Press. [RS]Google Scholar
Block, N., ed. (1980b) Troubles with functionalism. In: Readings in the philosophy of psychology, vol. 1, ed. Block, N.. Harvard University Press. [GR]Google Scholar
Block, N., ed. (1980c) What is functionalism? In: Readings in the philosophy of psychology, vol. 1, ed. Block, N.. Harvard University Press. [LHD]Google Scholar
Blodgett, H. (1929) The effect of the introduction of reward upon the maze performance of rats. In: University of California publications in psychology. University of California Press. [GR, rBFS]Google Scholar
Blough, D. S. (1956) Dark adaptation in the pigeon. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 49:425–30. [taBFS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blough, D. S. (1959) Delayed matching in the pigeon. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 2:151–60. [WST]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blough, D. S. & Schrier, A. M. (1963) Scotopic spectral sensitivity in the monkey. Science 139:493–94. [taBFS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bolter, D. J. (1984) Turing's man. University of North Carolina Press. [MB]Google Scholar
Bornstein, M. H. (1975) Qualities of color vision in infancy. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 19:401–19. [RKT]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bornstein, M. H. (1978) Chromatic vision in infancy. In: Advances in child development and behavior, vol. 12, ed. Reese, H. W. & Lipsitt, L. H.. Academic Press. [HMW]Google Scholar
Bornstein, M. H. (1981) Psychological studies of color perception in human infants: Habituation, discrimination and categorization, recognition and conceptualization. In: Advances in infancy research, ed. Lipsitt, L. P. & Rovee-Collier, C. K.. Ablex. [TRZ]Google Scholar
Bornstein, M. H., Kessen, W. & Weiskopf, S. (1976) Color vision and hue categorization in young human infants. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Performance and Perception 2:115–29. [TRZ]Google ScholarPubMed
Brady, J. V. (1975) Conditioning and emotion. In: Emotions: Their parameters and measurement, ed. Levi, L.. Raven Press. [MLW]Google Scholar
Bransford, J. D., McCarrel, N. W., Franks, J. J. & Nitsch, K. E. (1977) Towards unexplaining memory. In: Perceiving, acting, and knowing: Toward an ecological psychology, ed. Shaw, R. E. & Bransford, J. D.. Erlbaum. [MJM]Google Scholar
Bretherton, I., McNew, S. & Beeghly-Smith, M. (1981) Early person knowledge as expressed in gestural and verbal communication: When do infants acquire a “Theory of Mind?” In: Social cognition in infancy, ed. Lamb, M. & Sherrod, L.. Erlbaum. [CNJ]Google Scholar
Bridgman, P. W. (1959) The ways things are. Harvard University Press. [taBFS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Broadbent, D. E. (1958) Perception and communication. Pergamon. [BAF, rBFS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brunswik, E. (1955) Representative design and probabilistic theory in a functional psychology. Psychological Review 62:193–217. [EJW]Google Scholar
Carlson, N. R. (1981) Physiology of behavior. 2d ed.Allyn and Bacon. [FW1]Google Scholar
Chisholm, R (1957) Perceiving: A philosophical study. Cornell University Press. [GR]Google Scholar
Chomsky, N. (1959) Review of Skinner's Verbal Behavior. Language 35:26–58. [WGL, GR, DNR]Google Scholar
Craik, K. J. W. (1943) The nature of explanation. Cambridge University Press. [JCM]Google Scholar
Danto, A. C. (1983) Science as an intentional system. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 6:359–60. [MB]Google Scholar
Davidson, D. (1970) Mental events. In: Experience and theory, ed. Foster, L. & Swenson, J. W.. University of Massachusetts Press. [JH]Google Scholar
Davis, L. H. (1982) Functionalism and absent qualia. Philosophical Studies 41:231–49. [LHD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dawson, M. E. (1973) Can classical conditioning occur without contingency learning? A review and evaluation of the evidence. Psychophysiology 10:82–86. [JJF]Google Scholar
Dawson, M. E. & Furedy, J. J. (1976) The role of awareness in human differential autonomic classical conditioning: The necessary gate hypothesis. Psychophysiology 13:50–53. [JJF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Day, W. (1969a) On certain similarities between the philosophical investigations of Ludwig Wittgenstein and the operationism of B. F. Skinner. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 12:489–506. [MJM]Google Scholar
Day, W. (1969b) Radical behaviorism in reconciliation with phenomenology. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 12:315–28. [MJM]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dennett, D. C. (1975) Why the law of effect will not go away. Journal of the Theory of Social Behaviour 5:169–87. [WGL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dennett, D. C. (1978a) Brainstorms. Bradford Books. [RCM]Google Scholar
Dennett, D. C. (1978b) Skinner skinned. In: Brainstorms. Bradford Books. [JEA, WGL, GR]Google Scholar
Dennett, D. C. (1978c) Why the law of effect won't go away. In: Brainstorms. Bradford Books. [GR]Google Scholar
Dennett, D. C. (1979) Brainstorms. Bradford Books. [LHD, MJM]Google Scholar
Dennett, D. C. (1983) Intentional systems in cognitive ethology: The “Panglossian paradigm” defended. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 6:343–90. [ML]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deutsch, J. A. (1960) The structural basis of behavior. University of Chicago Press. [FMT]Google Scholar
Dickinson, A. (1980) Contemporary animal learning theory. Cambridge University Press. [FMT]Google Scholar
Domjan, M & Burkhard, B. (1982) The principles of learning and behavior. Brooks-Cole. [WST]Google Scholar
Donahoe, J. W. & Wessells, M. G. (1980) Learning, language and memory. Harper & Row. [WST]Google Scholar
Duncan, P. M. & Duncan, N. C. (1971) Free-operant and T-maze avoidance performance by septal and hippocampal-damaged rats. Physiology & Behavior 7:687–93. [MLW]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eddington, A. (1958) The nature of the physical world. University of Michigan Press. [EJW]Google Scholar
Fodor, J. A. (1968a) The appeal to tacit knowledge in psychological explanation. Journal of Philosophy 65:627–40. [WGL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fodor, J. A. (1968b) Psychological explanation. Random House. [GR]Google Scholar
Fodor, J. A. (1975) The language of thought. Crowell. [WGL, GR]Google Scholar
Fodor, J. A. (1980) Methodological solipsism considered as a research strategy in cognitive psychology. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 3:63–73. [WGL, JCM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fodor, J. A. (1983) The modularity of mind. MIT Press. [LHD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Furedy, J. J. (1973) Some limits of the cognitive control of conditioned autonomic behavior. Psychophysiology 10:108–11. [JJF]Google Scholar
Furedy, J. J. & Riley, D. M. (1982) Classical and operant conditioning in the enhancement of biofeedback: Specifics and speculations. In: Clinical biofeedback: Efficacy and mechanisms, ed. White, L. & Tursky, B.. Guilford Press. [JJF]Google Scholar
Furedy, J. J., Riley, D. M. & Fredrickson, M. (1983) Pavlovian extinction, phobias, and the limits of the cognitive paradigm. Pavlovian Journal of Biological Psychology 18:126–35. [JJF]Google ScholarPubMed
Gallistel, C. R. (1980) The organization of action: A new synthesis. Erlbaum. [FMT]Google Scholar
Gallup, G. G. Jr (1983) Toward a comparative psychology of mind. In: Animal cognition and behavior, ed. Mellgren, R. L.. North Holland Publishing Co. [GGG]Google Scholar
Galton, F. (1883) Inquiries into human faculty and its development. J. M. Dent and Company. [taBFS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gelman, R. & Spelke, E. (1981) The development of thoughts about animate and inanimate objects: Implications for research on social cognition. In: Social cognitive development, ed. Flavell, J. H. & Ross, L.. Cambridge University Press. [CNJ]Google Scholar
Gier, N. F. (1981) Wittgenstein and phenomenology. State University of New York Press. [MJM]Google Scholar
Gleitman, H. (1963) Place-learning. Scientific American 209:116–22. [GR]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goffman, E. (1959) The presentation of self in everyday life. Doubleday Anchor. [JEA]Google Scholar
Gould, S. J. (1980) The panda's thumb: More reflections in natural history. W.W. Norton & Co. [EJW]Google Scholar
Griffin, D. R. (1976) The question of animal awareness. Rockefeller University Press. [WST]Google Scholar
Gunderson, K. (1971) Asymmetries and mind-body perplexities. In: Minnesota studies in the philosophy of science, vol. 4, ed. Radner, M. & Winokur, S.. University of Minnesota Press. [KG]Google Scholar
Guttman, N. (1956) The pigeon and the spectrum and the other perplexities. Psychological Reports 2:449–60. [rBFS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harlow, H. F. (1949) The formation of learning sets. Psychological Review 56:51–65. [GR]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harlow, H. F. (1959) Learning set and error factor theory. In: Psychology: A study of science, vol. 2, ed. Koch, S.. McGraw Hill. [GR]Google Scholar
Harnad, S. (1982) Consciousness: An afterthought. Cognition and Brain Theory 5:29–47. [DP]Google Scholar
Harzem, P. & Miles, T. R. (1978) Conceptual issues in operant psychology. John Wiley and Sons. [MJM]Google Scholar
Heelas, P. & Lock, A., eds. (1981) Indigenous psychologies. Academic Press. [CNJ]Google Scholar
Heider, E. R. (1972) Universals in color naming and memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology 93:10–20. [TRZ]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heil, J. (1982) Seeing is believing. American Philosophical Quarterly 19:229–39. [JH]Google Scholar
Heil, J. (1983) Perception and cognition. University of California Press. [JH]Google Scholar
Herrnstein, R. J. & van Sommers, P. (1962) Method for sensory scaling with animals. Science 135:40–41. [taBFS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hogben, L. (1957) Statistical theory. Allen and Unwin. [taBFS]Google Scholar
Honig, W. K. (1978) On the conceptual nature of cognitive terms: An initial essay. In: Cognitive processes in animal behavior, ed. Hulse, S. W., Fowler, H. & Honig, W. K.. Erlbaum. [WST]Google Scholar
Honig, W. K. & James, P. H. R. (1971) Animal memory. Academic Press. [WST]Google Scholar
Hospers, J. (1958) What means this freedom? In: Determinism and freedom, ed. Hook, S.. Collier Books. [JEA]Google Scholar
Hull, C. L. (1943) Principles of behavior: An introduction to behavior theory. Appleton-Century. [EJW]Google Scholar
Hulse, S. W., Fowler, H & Honig, W. K. (1978) Cognitive processes in animal behavior. Erlbaum. [WST]Google Scholar
Irwin, F. W. (1971) Intentional behavior and motivation: A cognitive theory. J.B. Lippincott Co. [FWI]Google Scholar
Isaacson, R. L. (1982) The limbic system. Plenum Publishing. [MLW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jarvik, M. E. (1956) Simple color discrimination in chimpanzees: Effects of varying continguity between cue and incentive. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 49:492–95. [EJW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jenkins, H. M. (1979) Animal learning and behavior theory. In: The first century of experimental psychology, ed. Hearst, E.. Erlbaum. [EJW]Google Scholar
Johnson, C. N. (1982) Acquisition of mental verbs and the concept of mind. In: Language development, vol. 1, ed. Kuczaj, S.. Erlbaum. [CNJ]Google Scholar
Johnson, C. N. & Wellman, H. M. (1980) Children's developing understanding of mental verbs: Remember, know, and guess. Child Development 51:1095–1102. [HMW]Google Scholar
Köhler, W. (1926) The mentality of apes. Harcourt, Brace and World. [GR, rBFS]Google Scholar
Kuhn, T. S. (1970) The structure of scientific revolutions. University of Chicago Press. [MB]Google Scholar
Lashley, K. (1923) The behavioristic interpretation of consciousness. Psychological Review 30:237–72, 329–53. [WL]Google Scholar
Lebowitz, M. (1983) Generalization from natural language text. Cognitive Science 7:1–40. [ML]Google Scholar
Leibniz, G. (1714) The monadology and other philosophical writings. Trans. Latta, R.. Oxford University Press. [KG, JCM]Google Scholar
Lewontin, R. (1979) Sociobiology as an adaptationist paradigm. Behavioral Science 24:5–14. [EJW]Google Scholar
Lycan, W. G. (1981a) Form, function, and feel. Journal of Philosophy 78:24–50. [WGL]Google Scholar
Lycan, W. G. (1981b) Toward a homuncular theory of believing. Cognition and Brain Theory 4:139–59. [WGL]Google Scholar
MacCorquodale, K. (1970) On Chomsky's review of Skinner's Verbal Behavior. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 13:83–99. [JCM]Google Scholar
Marr, D. (1982) Vision. W.H. Freeman. [JCM]Google Scholar
Marr, J. (1983) Memory: Models and metaphors. Psychological Record 33:12–19. [MJM]Google Scholar
Marshall, J. C. (1977) Minds, machines and metaphors. Social Studies of Science 7:475–88. [JCM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maze, J. R. (1953) On some corruptions of the doctrine of homeostasis. Psychological Review 60:405–12. [JJF]Google Scholar
Menzel, E. W. (1978) Cognitive mapping in chimpanzees. In: Cognitive processes in animal behavior, ed. Hulse, S. W., Fowler, H. & Honig, W. K.. Erlbaum. [WST]Google Scholar
Menzel, E. W. Jr & Juno, C. (1982) Marmosets (Saguinus fuscicollis): Are learning sets learned? Science 217:750–52. [EJW]Google Scholar
Minsky, M. (1968) Matter, mind, and models. In: Semantic information processing, ed. Minsky, M.. MIT Press. [DP]Google Scholar
Moore, B. R. (1973) The role of directed Pavlovian reactions in simple instrumental learning in the pigeon. In: Constraints on learning, ed. Hinde, R. A. & Stevenson-Hinde, J.. Academic Press. [FMT]Google Scholar
Mountjoy, P. P. & Malott, M. K. (1968) Wave-length generalization curves for chickens reared in restricted portions of the spectrum. Psychological Record 18:575–83. [TRZ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Neurath, O. (1970) Foundations of the social sciences. In: The foundations of the unity of science, ed. Neurath, O. et al. University of Chicago Press. [MB]Google Scholar
Nisbett, R. E. & Wilson, T. D. (1977) On saying more than we can know. Psychological Review 84:231–59. [GR]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oatley, K. (1973) Simulation and theory of thirst. The neuropsychology of thirst: New findings and advances in concepts, ed. Epstein, A. N., Kissileff, H. R. & Stellar, E.. V.H. Winston. [FMT]Google Scholar
O'Keefe, J. & Nadel, L. (1978) The hippocampus as a cognitive map. Oxford University Press. [MLW]Google Scholar
Olton, D. S. (1978) Characteristics of spatial memory. In: Cognitive processes in animal behavior, ed. Hulse, S. W., Fowler, H. & Honig, W. K.. Erlbaum. [WST]Google Scholar
Olton, D. S., Becker, J. T. & Handelmann, G. E. (1979) Hippocampus, space, and memory. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 2:313–65. [MLW]Google Scholar
Paivio, A. (1975) Neomentalism. Canadian Journal of Psychology 29:263–91. [RMG]Google Scholar
Penfield, W. (1969) Consciousness, memory and man's conditioned reflexes. In: On the biology of learning, ed. Pribram, K. H.. Harcourt, Brace and Jovanovich. [FMT]Google Scholar
Peterson, N. (1962) Effect of monochromatic rearing on the control of responding by wavelength. Science 136:774–75. [rBFS]Google Scholar
Premack, D. & Woodruff, G. (1978) Does the chimpanzee have a theory of mind? Behavioral and Brain Sciences 4:515–26. [GGG, LCNJ]Google Scholar
Pribran, K. H. (1971) Languages of the brain: Experimental paradoxes and principles in neuropsychology. Prentice-Hall. [MLW]Google Scholar
Putnam, H. (1975) The meaning of “meaning.” In: Minnesota studies in the philosophy of science, vol. 7, Language, mind and knowledge, ed. Gunderson, K.. University of Minnesota Press. [WGL]Google Scholar
Quine, W. V. O. (1951) Notes on the theory of reference. In: From a logical point of view and other essays. Harper & Row. [GR]Google Scholar
Quine, W. V. O. (1953) Two dogmas of empiricism. In: From a logical point of view. Harvard University Press. [MB]Google Scholar
Quine, W. V. O. (1960) Word and object. MIT Press. [MJM, GR]Google Scholar
Ratliff, F. (1962) Some interrelations among physics, physiology, and psychology in the study of vision. In Psychology: A study of a science, study 2, vol. 4, ed. Koch, S.. McGraw-Hill. [RKT]Google Scholar
Rescorla, R. A. & Wagner, A. R. (1972) A theory of Pavlovian conditioning: Variations in the effectiveness of reinforcement and nonreinforcement. In: Classical conditioning, vol. 2, ed. Black, A. H. & Prokasy, W. F.. Appleton-Century-Crofts. [WST]Google Scholar
Rey, G. (1980) What are mental images? In: Readings in the philosophy of psychology, vol. 2, ed. Block, N.. Harvard University Press. [GR]Google Scholar
Rey, G. (1983) A reason for doubting the existence of consciousness. In: Consciousness and self-regulation, vol. 3, ed. Davidson, R., Schwartz, G. & Shapiro, D.. Plenum. [GR]Google Scholar
Riley, D. A. & Leuin, T. C. (1971) Stimulus-generalization gradients in chickens reared in monochromatic light and tested with single wavelength values. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 75:399–402. [TRZ]Google Scholar
Robinson, D. N. (1979) Systems of modern psychology: A critical sketch. Columbia University Press. [DNR]Google Scholar
Robinson, D. N. (1981) An intellectual history of psychology. Rev. ed.Macmillan. [DNR]Google Scholar
Roediger, H. L. (1980) Memory metaphors in cognitive psychology. Memory and Cognition 8:231–46. [MJM]Google Scholar
Roitblat, H. L. (1982) The meaning of representation in animal memory. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 5:353–406. [EJW]Google Scholar
Rosch, E. H. (1973) Natural categories. Cognitive Psychology 4:49–53. [TRZ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosch, E., Mervis, C. B., Gay, W. D., Boyes-Braem, P. & Johnson, D. N. (1976) Basic objects in natural categories. Cognitive Psychology 8:382–439. [HMW]Google Scholar
Ross, L. (1981) The “intuitive scientist” formulation and its developmental implications. In: Social cognitive development, ed. Flavell, J. H. & Ross, L.. Cambridge University Press. [CNJ]Google Scholar
Ryle, G. (1949) The concept of mind. Hutchinson. [JJF, WL]Google Scholar
Scriven, M. (1956) A study of radical behaviorism. In: The foundations of science and the concepts of psychology and psychoanalysis. Minnesota Studies in the Philosophy of Science, vol. 1, ed. Feigl, H. & Scriven, M.. University of Minnesota Press. [MAS]Google Scholar
Shatz, M., Wellman, H. M. & Silber, S. (1983) The acquisition of mental verbs: A systematic investigation of the first reference to mental state. Cognition 14:301–21. [HMW]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shepard, J. (1933) Higher processes in the behavior of rats. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 19:149–52. [GR]Google Scholar
Skinner, B. F. (1938) The behavior of organisms: An experimental analysis. Appleton-Century-Crofts. [FWI]Google Scholar
Skinner, B. F. (1947) Current trends in experimental psychology. In: Current trends in psychology. University of Pittsburgh Press. [JCM]Google Scholar
Skinner, B. F. (1950) Arc theories of learning necessary? Psychological Review 57:193–216. [WST]Google Scholar
Skinner, B. F. (1953) Science and human behavior. Macmillan. [BAF, KG, WL, rBFS]Google Scholar
Skinner, B. F. (1957) Verbal behavior. Appleton. [rBFS]Google Scholar
Skinner, B. F. (1965) Science and human behavior. 1st ed. 1953. Collier Macmillan-Free Press. [WL]Google Scholar
Skinner, B. F. (1966a) Operant behavior. In: Operant behavior: Areas of research and application, ed. Honig, W. K.. Appleton-Century-Crofts. [MLW]Google Scholar
Skinner, B. F. (1966b) The phylogeny and ontogeny of behavior. Science 153:1205–13. [EJW]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Skinner, B. F. (1969) Contingencies of reinforcement: A theoretical analysis. Appleton-Century-Crofts. [FW]Google Scholar
Skinner, B. F. (1971) Beyond freedom and dignity. Knopf. [BAF, rBFS]Google Scholar
Skinner, B. F. (1974) About behaviorism. Knopf. [RS, MAS, EJW]Google Scholar
Skinner, B. F. (1975a) The shaping of phylogenic behavior. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 24:117–20. [RS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Skinner, B. F. (1975b) The steep and thorny way to a science of behavior. In: Problems of scientific revolution, ed. Harré, R.. Clarendon Press. [BAF]Google Scholar
Skinner, B. F. (1976) About behaviorism. Vintage Books. [SPS]Google Scholar
Skinner, B. F. (1977) Why I am not a cognitive psychologist. Behaviorism 5(2):1–10. [RKT]Google Scholar
Skinner, B. F. (1979) The shaping of a behaviorist. Knopf. [rBFS]Google Scholar
Skinner, B. F. (1981) Selection by consequences. Science 213:501–4. [EJW]Google Scholar
Skinner, B. F. (1983) A better way to deal with selection. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 6:377–78. [ML]Google Scholar
Smart, J. (1959) Sensations and brain processes. Philosophical Review 68:141–56. [CM, GR]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stevens, S. S. (1935) The operational basis of psychology. American Journal of Psychology 47:323–30. [taBFS]Google Scholar
Strauss, M. S. & Curtis, L. E. (1981) Infant perception of numerosity. Child Development 52:1146–52. [HMW]Google Scholar
Strawson, P. F. (1968) Freedom and resentment. In: Studies in the philosophy of thought and action, ed Strawson, P. F.. Oxford University Press. [JEA, rBFS]Google Scholar
Teitelbaum, P. (1966) The use of operant methods in the assessment and control of motivational states. In: Operant behavior: Areas of research and application, ed. Honig, W. K.. Appleton-Century-Crofts. [MLW]Google Scholar
Teuber, H. L. (1974) Key problems in the programming of movements. Brain Research 71:535–68. [JCM]Google Scholar
Tolman, E. C. (1922) A new formula for behaviorism. Psychological Review 29:44–53. [WL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tolman, E. C. (1932) Purposive behavior in animals and men. Century. [EJW]Google Scholar
Tolman, E. C. (1935) Psychology versus immediate experience. Philosophy of Science 2:356–80. [EJW]Google Scholar
Tolman, E. C. (1948) Cognitive maps in rats and men. Psychological Review 55:189–208. [EJW]Google Scholar
Tolman, E. & Honzik, C. (1930), “Insight” in rats. In: University of California publications in psychology. University of California Press. [GR, rBFS]Google Scholar
Tracy, W. K. (1970) Wavelength generalization and preference in monochromatically reared ducklings. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 13:163–78. [TRZ]Google Scholar
Tulving, E. (1979) Memory research: What kind of progress. In: Perspectives in memory research, ed. Nilsson, L. A.. Erlbaum. [MJM]Google Scholar
Ullman, S. (1979) The interpretation of visual motion. MIT Press. [JCM]Google Scholar
de Waal, F. (1982) Chimpanzee politics. Jonathan Cape. [GGG]Google Scholar
Wagner, A. R., Rudy, J. W. & Whitlow, J. W. (1973) Rehearsal in animal conditioning. Journal of Experimental Psychology 97:407–26. [WST]Google Scholar
Waltz, D. L. (1975) Understanding line drawings of scenes with shadows. In: The psychology of computer vision, ed. Winston, P.. McGraw-Hill. [RCM]Google Scholar
Wann, T. W. (1964) Behaviorism and phenomenology: Contrasting bases for modern psychology. University of Chicago Press. [CNJ, RKT]Google Scholar
Watson, J. B. (1921) Is thinking merely that action of the language mechanisms? British Journal of Psychology 11:87–104. [WL]Google Scholar
Weiskrantz, L., Warrington, E. K., Sanders, M. D. & Marshall, J. (1974) Visual capacity in the hemianopie field following a restricted occipital ablation. Brain 97:709–28. [RMG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wellman, H. M. (in press) The origins of metacognition. In: Metacognition, cognition and human performance, ed. Forrest-Pressley, D., MacKinnon, G. E. & Waller, T. G.. Academic Press. [CNJ, HMW]Google Scholar
Wiener, N. (1948) Cybernetics, or control and communication in the animal and the machine. Wiley. [JCM]Google Scholar
Wimmer, H. & Perner, J. (1983) Beliefs about beliefs: Representation and constraining function of wrong beliefs in young children's understanding of deception. Cognition 13:103–28. [CNJ]Google Scholar
Wisdom, J. (1952) Other minds. Basil Blackwell. [KG]Google Scholar
Wittgenstein, L. (1958) The blue and brown books. Harper & Row. [MJM]Google Scholar
Wolf, D. (1982) Understanding others: A longitudinal case study of the concept of independent agency. In: Action and thought, ed. Forman, G. E.. Academic Press. [CNJ]Google Scholar
Woodruff, G. & Premack, D. (1979) Intentional communication in the chimpanzee: The development of deception. Cognition 7:333–62. [CNJ]Google Scholar
Woodworth, R. S. & Schlosberg, H. (1955) Experimental psychology. Methuen. [WL]Google Scholar
Wright, A. A. & Cumming, W. W. (1971) Color-naming functions for the pigeon. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 15:7–17. [TRZ]Google Scholar
Zentall, T. R. & Edwards, C. A. (in press) Categorical color coding by pigeons. Animal Learning and Behavior. [TRZ]Google Scholar
Zentall, T. R., Edwards, C. A., Moore, B. S. & Hogan, D. E. (1981) Identity: The basis for both matching and oddity learning in pigeons. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 7:70–86. [TRZ]Google Scholar
Zuriff, G. E. (1979) Ten inner causes. Behaviorism 7:1–8. [RS, rBFS]Google Scholar