Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-lnqnp Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T16:08:23.187Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

On the careful use of ecological models

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 February 2010

Thomas Caraco
Thomas Caraco
Affiliation:
Behavioral Ecology Group, Biological Sciences, State University of New York, Albany, N.Y. 12222
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

An abstract is not available for this content so a preview has been provided. Please use the Get access link above for information on how to access this content.
Image of the first page of this content. For PDF version, please use the ‘Save PDF’ preceeding this image.'
Type
Open Peer Commentary
Information
Behavioral and Brain Sciences , Volume 11 , Issue 4 , December 1988 , pp. 680 - 681
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1988

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abarca, N. & Fantino, E. (1982) Choice and foraging. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 38:117–23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ach, N. (1910) Über den Willensakt and das Temperament. Quelle & Meyer.Google Scholar
Ainslie, G. W. (1974) Impulse control in pigeons. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 21:485–89.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ainslie, G. W. (1975) Specious reward: A behavioral theory of impulsiveness and impulse control. Psychological Bulletin 82:463–96.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ainslie, G. W. (1984) Behavioral economics II: Motivated, involuntary behavior. Social Science Information 23:247–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ainslie, G. W. (1987) Aversion with only one factor. In: Quantitative analyses of behavior: Vol. 5. The effect of delay and of intervening events on reinforcement value, ed. Commons, M. L., Mazur, J. E., Nevin, J. A. & Rachlin, H.. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Ainslie, G. W. (1988) An experimental model of intertemporal conflict. In: Quantitative analyses of behavior, vol. 9, Behavioral economics, ed. Commons, M. L., Cross, J. C., Herrnstein, R. J. & Vaughan, W.. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Ainslie, G. W. (forthcoming) Picoeconomics: The interaction of successive motivational states within the individual. Cambridge University Press, (in preparation) Internal self-control in pigeons.Google Scholar
Ainslie, G. & Herrnstein, R. J. (1981) Preference reversal and delayed reinforcement. Animal Learning & Behavior 9:476–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allison, J. (1981) Economics and operant conditioning. In: Predictability, correlation, and contiguity, ed. Harzem, P. & Zeiler, M. D.. Wiley.Google Scholar
Anderson, W. H. & Moreland, K. L. (1982) Instrumental vs. moralistic selfverbalizations in delaying gratification. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly 28:291–96.Google Scholar
Barnard, C. J. & Brown, C. A. J. (1985) Risk-sensitive foraging in common shrews (Sorex araneus L.). Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 16:161–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barnard, C. J., Brown, C. A. J., Houston, A. I. & McNainara, J. M. (1985) Risk-sensitive foraging in common shrews: An interruption model and the effects of mean and variance in reward rate. BehavioralEcology and Sociobiology 18:139–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baron, A. & Galizio, M. (1983) Instructional controlof human operant behavior. Psychological Record 33:495–520.Google Scholar
Baum, W. M. (1972) Choice in a continuous procedure. Psychonomic Science 28:263–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baum, W. M. (1974) Choice in free-ranging wild pigeons. Science 185:78–79.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baum, W. M. (1974b) On two types of deviation from the matching law: Bias and undermatching. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 22:231–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baum, W. M. (1975) Time allocation in human vigilance. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 23:45–53.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baum, W. M. (1979) Matching, undermatching, and overmatching in studies of choice. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 32:269–81.Google ScholarPubMed
Baum, W. M. or Rachlin, H. (1969) Choice as time allocation. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 12:861–74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bentall, R. P. & Lowe, C. F. (1987) The role of verbal behavior in human learning: III. Instructional effects in children. Journalof the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 47:177–90.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bentall, R. P., Lowe, C. F. & Beasty, A. (1985) The role of verbal behavior in human learning: II. Developmental differences. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 43:165–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brigham, T. A. (1982) Self-management: A radical behavioral perspective. In: Self-management and behavior change, ed. Karoly, P. & Kaufer, F.. Pergamon Press.Google Scholar
Burns, D. J. & Powers, R. B. (1975) Choice and self-control in children: A test of Rachlin's model. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society 5:156–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caraco, T. (1980) On foraging time allocation in a stochastic environment. Ecology 61:119–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caraco, T. (1983) White-crowned sparrows (Zonotrichia leucophrys): Foraging preferences in a risky environment. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 12:63–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caraco, T. (1985) Encounter processes, prey densities, and efficient diets. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 8:333–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caraco, T. & Chasin, M. (1984) Foraging preferences: Response to reward skew. Animal Behaviour 32:76–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caraco, T. & Lima, S. L. (1985) Foraging juncos: Interaction of reward mean and variability. Animal Behaviour 33:216–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caraco, T., Martindale, S. & Whittam, T. S. (1980) An empirical demonstration of risk-sensitive foraging preferences. Animal Behaviour 28:820–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carver, C. S. & Sclicier, M. F. (1981) Attention and self-regulation: A control theory approach to human behavior. Springer-Verlag.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Catania, A. C. (1984) Learning (2nd ed.) Prentice-Hall.Google Scholar
Charnov, E. L. (1976) Optimal foraging: Attack strategy of a mantid. American Naturalist 110:141–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chavarro, A. & Logue, A. W. (1987) Experimental analysis of impulsiveness and self-control in preschool children. Poster presented at the meeting of the American Psychological Association, New York, N.Y.Google Scholar
Chavarro, A. (1988) Sensitivity to amount and delay of reinforcement: Effects of different types of concurrent variable-interval schedules. Psychological Record 38:421–35.Google Scholar
Christensen-Szalanski, J. J. J., Goldberg, A. D., Anderson, M. E. & Mitchell, T. R. (1980) Deprivation, delay of reinforcement, and the selection of behavioral strategies. Animal Behaviour 28:341–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chung, S.-H. & Herrnstein, R. J. (1967) Choice and delay of reinforcement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 10:67–74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cohen, S. & Syme, S. L., eds. (1985) Social support and health. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Collier, G. H. (1982) Determinants of choice. In: Nebraska Symposium on Motivation 1981, ed. Bernstein, D. J.. University of Nebraska Press.Google Scholar
Collier, G. H. & Rovee-Collier, C. K. (1981) A comparative analysis of optimal foraging behavior: Laboratory simulation. In: Foraging behavior: Ecological, ethological, and psychological approaches, ed. Kamil, A. C. & Sargent, T.. Garland Press.Google Scholar
Commons, M. L., Herrnstein, R. J. & Rachlin, H., eds. (1982) Quantitative analyses of behavior. Vol. 2: Matching and maximizing accounts. Ballinger.Google Scholar
Conger, R. & Killeen, P. (1974) Use of concurrent operants in small group research. Pacific Sociological Review 17 (4):399–416.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Copeland, A. P. (1983) Children's talking to themselves: Its developmental significance, function, and therapeutic promise. In: Advances in cognitive behavioral research and theory, vol. 2, ed. Kendall, P. C.. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Cornell, H. (1976) Search strategies and the adaptive significance of switching in some general predators. American Naturalist 110:317–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cowie, R. J. (1977) Optimal foraging in great tits (Partis major). Nature 268:137–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crick, F. H. C. (1979) Thinking about the brain. Scientific American 241:219–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cronin, P. B. (1980) Reinstatement of postresponse stimuli priorto reward in delayed-reward discrimination learning by pigeons. Animal Learning & Behavior 8:352–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crooks, R. C. (1977) Magnitude of reward and preference in a delayed-reward situation. Psychological Reports 40:1215–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davison, M. (1982) Preference in concurrent variable-interval fixed-ratio schedules. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 37:81–96.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Deluty, M. Z., Whitehouse, W. G., Mellitz, M. & Hineline, P. N. (1983) Self-control and commitment involving aversive events. Behaviour Analysis Letters 3:213–19.Google Scholar
de Villiers, P. (1977) Choice in concurrent schedules and a quantitative formulation of the law of effect. Handbook of operant behavior, ed. Honig, W. K. & Staddon, J. E. R.. Prentice-Hall.Google Scholar
Dinsmoor, J. A. (1984) The cognitive challenge in historical perspective. Paper presented at the Association for Behavior Analysis, Nashville, Tenn.Google Scholar
Domjan, M. (1983) Biological constraints and the pursuit of general theories of learning. In: Animal cognition and behavior, ed. Mellgren, R. L.. North-Holland.Google Scholar
Dow, S. M. & Lea, S. E. C. (1987) Foraging in a changing environment: Simulations in the operant laboratory. In: Quantitative analyses of behavior. Vol. 6: Foraging, ed. Commons, M. L., Kacelnik, A. & Shettleworth, S. J.. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Dunn, R. & Fantino, E. (1982) Choice and the relative immediacy of reinforcement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 38:321–26.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eisenberger, R. & Adornetto, M. (1986) Generalized self-control of delay and effort. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 51:1020–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eisenberger, R. & Masterson, F. A. (1986) Effects of prior learning and current motivation on self-control. In: Quantitative analyses of behavior. Vol. 5: The effect of delay and of intervening events on reinforcement value, ed. Commons, M. L., Nevin, J. A. & Rachlin, H.. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Eisenberger, R., Masterson, F. A. & Lowman, K. (1982) Effects of previous delay of reward, generalized effort, and deprivation on impulsiveness. Learning and Motivation 13:378–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eisler, H. (1984) Subjective duration in rats: The psychophysical function. In: Timing and time perception, ed. Gibbon, J. & Allan, L.. New YorkAcademy of Sciences.Google Scholar
Engen, S. & Stenseth, N. C. (1984) A general version of optimal foraging theory: The effect of simultaneous encounters. TheoreticalPopulation Biology 26:192–204.Google Scholar
Fantino, E. (1969) Choice and rate of reinforcement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 12:723–30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fantino, E. (1977) Conditioned reinforcement: Choice and information. In: Handbook of operant behavior, ed. Honig, W. K. & Staddon, J. E. R.. Prentice-Hall.Google Scholar
Honig, W. K. (1981) Contiguity, response strength, and the delay-reduction hypothesis. In: Predictability, correlation, and contiguity, ed. Harzem, P. & Zeiler, M. H.. Wiley.Google Scholar
Honig, W. K. (1985) Behavior analysis and behavioral ecology: A synergistic coupling. The Behavior Analyst 8:151–57.Google Scholar
Fantino, E. & Abarca, N. (1985) Choice, optimal foraging, and the delayreduction hypothesis. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 8:315–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ferster, C. B. (1953) Sustained behavior under delayed reinforcement. Journal of Experimental Psychology 45:218–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fisher, E. B. Jr. (1982) Prevention in adulthood: Self-motivated quitting, and. Prevention in adulthood: Maintenance of cessation. (Principal author) In: The health consequences of smoking: Cancer: A report of the surgeon general. U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, DHHS (PHS) Pub. No. 82–50179.Google Scholar
Fisher, E. B. (1986) A skeptical perspective: The importance of behavior and environment. In: Self-jnanagement of chronic disease: Recent developments in health psychology and behavioral medicine, ed. Holroyd, K. A. & Creer, T. L.. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Fisher, E. B. Jr, Levenkron, J. C, Lowe, M. R., Loro, A. D. Jr. & Green, L. (1982) Self-initiatedself control in risk reduction. In: Adherence, generalization, and maintenancein behavioral medicine, ed. Stuart, R.. Brunner/Mazel.Google Scholar
Fisher, I. (1960) The theory of interest. Macmillan.Google Scholar
Furnham, A. & Lewis, A. (1986) The economic mind: The social psychology of economic behaviour. Harvester.Google Scholar
Galef, B. G. (1985) Social learning in wild Norway rats. In: Issues in the ecological study of learning, ed. Johnston, T. D. & Pietrewicz, A. T.. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Gibbon, J. (1977) Scalar expectancy theory and Weber's law in animal timing. Psychological Review 84:279–325.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gleitman, H. (1986) Psychology. Norton.Google Scholar
Goldfried, M. R. & Merbaum, M., eds. (1973) Behaviorchange through selfcontrol. Holt, Rinehart and Winston.Google Scholar
Gray, L. (1985) The environmental dimensions that influence behavior. In: Issues in the ecological study of learning, ed. Johnston, T. D. & Pietrewicz, A. T.. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Green, L., Fisher, E. B. Jr, Perlow, S. & Sherman, L. (1981) Preference reversal and self-control: Choice as a function of reward amount and delay. Behaviour Analysis Letters 1:43–51.Google Scholar
Green, L. & Snyderman, M. (1980) Choice between rewards differing in amount and delay: Toward a choice model of self-control. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 34:135–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Green, R. F. (1980) Bayesian birds: A simple example of Oaten's stochastic model of optimal foraging. Theoretical Population Biology 18:244–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grosch, J. & Neuringer, A. (1981) Self-control in pigeons under the Mischel paradigm. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 35:3–21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hall-Johnson, E. & Poling, A. (1984) Preference in pigeons given a choice between sequences of fixed-ratio schedules: Effects of ratio values and duration of food delivery. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 42:127–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hamblin, R. L. & Miller, H. L. (1977) Matching as a multivariate power law: Frequency of behavior versus frequency and magnitude of reinforcement. Learning and Motivation 8:113–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hamilton, W. D. (1964a) The genetical evolution of social behavior. I. Journal of Theoretical Biology 7:1–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hamilton, W. D. (1964b) The genetical evolution of social behavior. II. Journal of Theoretical Biology 7:17–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hellman, R. P. (1981) Stability of individual loudness functionsobtained by magnitude estimation and production. Perception & Psychophysics 29:63–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Herrnstein, R. J. (1970) On the law of effect. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 13:243–66.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Herrnstein, R. J. (1981) Self-control as response strength. In: Quantification of steady-state operant behavior, ed. Bradshaw, C. M., Szabadi, E. & Lowe, C. F.. Elsevier/North-Holland.Google Scholar
Herrnstein, R. J. & Vaughan, W. (1980) Melioration and behavioral allocation. In: Limits to action: The allocation of individual behavior, ed. Staddon, J. E. R.. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Herzberger, S. D. & Dweck, C. S. (1978) Attraction and delay of gratification. Journal of Personality 46:214–27.Google Scholar
Hineline, P. N. (1970) Negative reinforcement without shock reduction. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 14:259–68.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hinson, J. M. & Staddon, J. E. R. (1983) Hill-climbing by pigeons. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 39:25–47.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Holland, J. C. (1960) Teaching machines: An application of principles from the laboratory. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 3:275–87.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Holzman, L. H. (1985) Pragmatism and dialectical materialism in language development. In: Children's language, vol. 5, ed. Nelson, K. E.. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Horne, P. J. (1986) Human choice and the matching law: The roleof verbal behaviour. Unpublished doctoral thesis: University College of North Wales, Bangor, U.K.Google Scholar
Houston, A. (1986) The matching law applies to wagtails' foraging in the wild. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 45:15–18.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Houston, A. I. & McNamara, J. M. (1984) Imperfectly optimal animals. Behavioral Ecology and Sodobiology 15:61–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Houston, A. I. (1985) The choice of two prey types that minimises the probability of starvation. Behavioral Ecology and Sodobiology 17:135–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Houston, A. I. (1988) A framework for the functional analysis of behaviour. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 11:117–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hughes, R. N. (1979) Optimal diets under the energy maximization premise: The effects of recognition time and learning. American Naturalist 13:209–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hunter, I. & Davison, M. (1982) Independence of response force and reinforcement rate on concurrent variable-interval schedule performance. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 37:183–97.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hursh, S. R. (1980) Economic concepts for the analysis of behavior. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 34:219–38.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hursh, S. R. (1984) Behavioral economics. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 42:435–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hursh, S. R. (1987) Optimal choice in primates. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Psychological Association, New York, N.Y.Google Scholar
Imada, H. & Nageishi, Y. (1982) The concept of uncertainty in animal experiments using aversive stimulation. Psychological Bulletin 91:573–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Imada, S., Fujii, M., Nakagawa, R., Iso, H., Sugioka, K. & Imada, H. (1983) An attempt to measure effects of electric shock upon rat's drinking, eating and general activities over 24 hours a day. Japanese Psychological Research 25:52–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Imada, S., Kondo, H. & Imada, H. (1985) Effects of shocks, presented at a fixed time of day, on appetitive and general activity of rats. Animal Learning and Behavior. 13:194–200.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Imada, S., Yamashita, H, Shimazaki, T. & Imada, H. (in preparation) The long-term effects of the signaled/unsignaled shocks on rat's appetitive and general activities.Google Scholar
Ito, M. & Fantino, E. (1986) Choice, foraging, and reinforcer duration. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 46:93–103.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kacelnik, A. & Houston, A. I. (1984) Some effects of energy costs on foraging strategies. Animal Behaviour 32:609–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kagan, J. (1984) The nature of the child. Basic Books.Google Scholar
Kagan, J. & Kogan, N. (1970) Individual variation in cognitive processes. In: Carmichael's manual of child psychology (3rd ed.), ed. Mussen, P. H.. Wiley.Google Scholar
Kagan, J., Rosman, B. L., Day, D., Albert, J. & Phillips, W. (1964) Information processing in the child: Significance of analytic and reflective attitudes. Psychological Monographs 78 (Whole No. 578).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kagel, J. H., Battalio, R. C, White, S., MacDonald, D. N. & Green, L. (1986) Risk aversion in rats (Rattus norvegicus) under varying levels of resource availability. Journal of Comparative Psychology 100:95–100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kagel, J. H. & Green, L. (1987) Intertemporal choice behavior: Evaluation of economic and psychological models. In: Advances in behavioral economics, vol. 1, ed. Green, L. & Kagel, J. H.. Ablex.Google Scholar
Kagel, J. H., Green, L. & Caraco, T. (1986) When foragers discount the future: Constraint or adaptation? Animal Behaviour 34:271–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kahneman, D. & Tversky, A. (1984) Choices, values, and frames. American Psychologist 39:341–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kamil, A. C. & Sargent, T. D. (1981) Introduction: In: Foraging behavior: Ecological, ethological, and psychological approaches, ed. Kamil, A. C. & Sargent, T. D.. Garland.Google Scholar
Kanfer, F. H. & Goldfoot, D. A. (1966) Self-control and tolerance of noxious stimulation. Psychological Reports 18:79–85.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kanfer, F. H. & Zich, J. (1974) Self-control training: The effects of external control on children's resistance to temptation. Developmental Psychology 10:108–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kendall, P. C. (1977) On the efficacious use of verbal self-instructional procedures with children. Cognitive Therapy and Research 1:331–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kendall, P. C. & Finch, A. J. (1976) A cognitive behavioral treatment for impulse control: A case study. Journal of Consulting andClinical Psychology 44:852–57.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kendall, P. C. (1978) A cognitive-behavioral treatment for impulsivity: A group comparison study. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 46:110–18.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Killeen, P. R. (1982) Incentive theory. In: Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, ed. Bernstein, D. J.. University of Nebraska Press.Google Scholar
Killeen, P. R. (1984) Emergent behaviorism. Behaviorism 12 (2):25–39.Google Scholar
Killeen, P. R. (1985) Incentive theory: IV. Magnitude of reward. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 43:407–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Killeen, P. R., Smith, J. P. & Hanson, S. J. (1981) Central place foraging in Rattus norvegicus. Animal Behaviour 29:64–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
King, G. R. & Logue, A. W. (1987) Choice in a self-control paradigm, with human subjects: Effects of changeover delay duration. Learning and Motivation 18:421–38. (submitted) Choice in a self-control paradigm: Effects of reinforcer quality.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krebs, J. R. & Davies, N. B., eds. (1984) Behavioral ecology: An evolutionary approach (2nd ed.). Sinauer.Google Scholar
Krebs, J. R. & Davies, N. B. (1987) An introduction to behavioral ecology (2nd ed.). Blackwell.Google Scholar
Krebs, J. R. & Kacelnik, A. (1984) Time horizons of foraging animals. In: Timing and time perception, ed. Gibbon, J. & Allan, L.. New YorkAcademy of Sciences.Google Scholar
Krebs, J. R. & McCleery, R. H. (1984) Optimization in behavioural ecology. In: Behavioural ecology: An evolutionary approach, ed. Krebs, J. R. & Davies, B.. Sinauer.Google Scholar
Krebs, J. R., Stephens, D. W. & Sutherland, W. J. (1983) Perspectives in optimal foraging. In: Perspectives in ornithology, ed. Brush, A. H. & Clark, G. A.. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Kuhl, J. (1984) Volitional aspects of achievement motivation and learned helplessness: Toward a comprehensive theory of action control. In: Progress in experimental personality research, vol. 13, ed. Maher, B. A.. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Kuhl, J. & Kazen-Saad, M. (1988) A motivational approach to volition: Activation and deactivation of memory representations related to Uncompleted intentions. In: Cognitive perspectives on emotion and motivation, ed. Hamilton, V., Bower, G. H. & Frijda, N. H.. Martinus Nijhoff.Google Scholar
Lattal, K. A. (1984) Signal functions in delayed reinforcement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 42:239–53.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lavin, M. J., Freise, B. & Coombes, S. (1980) Transferred flavor aversions adult rats. Behavioral and Neural Biology 28:15–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lea, S. E. G. (1978) The psychology and economics of demand. Psychological Bulletin 85:441–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lea, S. E. G. (1979) Foraging and reinforcement schedules in the pigeon: Optimal and non-optimal aspects of choice. Animal Behaviour 27:875–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lea, S. E. G. (1981) Correlation and contiguity in foraging behaviour. In: Predictability, correlation, and contiguity, ed. Harzem, P. & Zeiler, M. D.. Wiley.Google Scholar
Levine, M. (1975) A cognitive theory of learning: Research on hypothesis testing. Wiley.Google Scholar
Lippman, L. G. & Meyer, M. E. (1967) Fixed interval performance as related to instructions and to subjects' verbalizations of the contingency. Psychonomic Science 8:135–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Logue, A. W. (1976) Individual differences in magnitude estimation of loudness. Perception and Psychophysics 19:279–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Logue, A. W. (1979a) Escape from noise and undermatching. Psychological Record 28:273–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Logue, A. W. (1979b) Taste aversion and the generality of the laws of learning. Psychological Bulletin 86:276–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Logue, A. W. (1982) Cognitive psychology's representation of behaviorism. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 3:381–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Logue, A. W. (1983) Signal detection and matching: Analyzing choice on concurrent variable-interval schedules. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 39:107–27.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Logue, A. W. (1985a) Functional behaviorism: Where the pain is does not matter. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 8:66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Logue, A. W. (1985b) The growth of behaviorism: Controversy and diversity. In: Points of view in the modern history of psychology, ed. Buxton, C.. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Logue, A. W. (1985c) The origins of behaviorism: Antecedents and proclamation. In: Points of view in the modern history of psychology, ed. Buxton, C.. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Logue, A. W. (1986) The psychology of eating and drinking. Freeman.Google Scholar
Logue, A. W.(1988) A comparison of taste aversion learning in humans and other vertebrates: Evolutionary pressures in common. In: Evolution and learning, ed. Bolles, R. C. & Beecher, M. D.. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Logue, A. W. & Chavarro, A. (1987) The effect on choice of absolute and relative values of reinforcer delay, amount, and frequency. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 13:280–91.Google Scholar
Logue, A. W., Chavarro, A. & King, G. R. (submitted) Impulsiveness and sensitivity to reinforcement in humans: Effects of the schedule of reinforcement.Google Scholar
Logue, A. W., Chavarro, A., Rachlin, H. & Reeder, R. W. (1988) Impulsiveness in pigeons living in the experimental chamber. Animal Learning & Behavior 16:31–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Logue, A. W. & de Villiers, P. A. (1978) Matching in concurrent variableinterval avoidance schedules. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 29:61–66.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Logue, A. W. & Mazur, J. E. (1981) Maintenance of self-control acquired through a fading procedure: Follow-up on Mazur and Logue (1978). Behaviour Analysis Letters 1:131–37.Google Scholar
Logue, A. W. & Pena-Correal, T. E. (1984) Responding during reinforcement delay in a self-control paradigm. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 41:267–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Logue, A. W. (1985) The effect of food deprivation on self-control. Behavioural Processes 10:355–68.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Logue, A. W., Pena-Correal, T. E., Rodriguez, M. L. & Kabela, E. (1986) Self-control in adult humans: Variation in positive reinforcer amount and delay. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 46:159–73.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Logue, A. W., Rodriguez, M. L., Pena-Correal, T. E. & Mauro, B. C. (1984) Choiee in a self-control paradigm: Quantification of experience-based differences. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 41:53–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Logue, A. W., Smith, M. E. & Rachlin, H. (1985) Sensitivity of pigeons to prereinforcer and postreinforcer delay. Animal Learning & Behavior 13:181–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lowe, C. F. (1979) Determinants of human operant behavior. In: Reinforcement and the organization of behavior, ed. Zeiler, M. D. or type="editors">Harzem, P.. Wiley.Google Scholar
Lowe, C. F. (1983) Radical behaviorism and human psychology. In: Animal models of human behavior, ed. Davey, C. C. L.. Wiley.Google Scholar
Lowe, C. F., Beasty, A. & Bentall, R. P. (1983) The role of verbal behavior in human learning: Infant performance on fixed-interval schedules. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 39:157–64.Google Scholar
Lowe, C. F., Harzem, P. & Bagshaw, M. (1978) Species differences in temporal control of behavior II: Human performance. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 29:351–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lowe, C. F., Harzem, P. & Hughes, S. (1978) Determinants of operant behavior in humans: Some differences from animals. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 30:373–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lowe, C. F. & Home, P. J. (1985) On the generality of behavioural principles: Human choice and the matching law. In: Behaviour analysis and contemporary psychology, ed. Lowe, C. F., Richelle, M., Blackman, D. E. & Bradshaw, C. M.. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Luria, A. R. (1961) The role of speech in the regulation of normal and abnormal behavior. Liveright.Google Scholar
Luria, A. R. (1982) Language and cognition. Wiley.Google Scholar
Maccoby, E. E. & Jacklin, C. N. (1974) The psychology of sex differences. Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Mangel, M. & Clark, C. W. (1986) Towards a unified foraging theory. Ecology 67:1127–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Matthews, B. A., Catania, A. C. & Shimoff, E. (1985). Effects of uninstructed verbal behavior on nonverbal responding: Contingency descriptions versus performance descriptions. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 43:155–64.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Matthews, B. A., Shimoff, E., Catania, A. C. & Sagvolden, T. (1977) Uninstructed human responding: Sensitivity to ratio andinterval contingencies. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 27:453–67.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mawhinney, T. C. (1982) Maximizing versus matching in people versus pigeons. Psychological Reports 50:267–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maynard Smith, J. (1978) Optimization theory in evolution. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 9:31–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mazur, J. E. (1981) Optimization theory fails to predict performance of pigeons in a two-response situation. Science 214:823–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mazur, J. E. (1984) Tests of an equivalence rule for fixed and variable reinforcer delays. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 10:426–36.Google Scholar
Mazur, J. E. (1986) Choice between single and multiple delayed reinforcers. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 46:67–77.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mazur, J. E. (1987) An adjusting procedure for studying delayed reinforcement. In: Quantitative analyses of behavior, vol. 5, The effect of delay and of intervening events on reinforcement value, ed. Commons, M. L., Mazur, J. E., Nevin, J. A. & Rachlin, H.. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Mazur, J. E. & Logue, A. W. (1978) Choice in a “self-control” paradigm: Effects of a fading procedure. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 30:11–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mazur, J. E., Stellar, J. R. & Waraczynski, M. (1987) Self-control choice with electrical stimulation of the brain as a reinforcer. Behavioural Processes 15:143–53.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McDiarmid, C. G. & Rilling, M. E. (1965) Reinforcement delay and reinforcement rate as determinants of schedule preference. Psychonomic Science 2:195–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McDowell, J. J. & Wood, H. M. (1984) Confirmation of linear system theory prediction: Changes in Herrnstein's k as a function of changes in reinforcer magnitude. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 41:183–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McDowell, J. J. (1985) Confirmation of linear system theory prediction: Rate of changes of Herrnstein's k as a function of response-force requirement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 43:61–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McNamara, J. M. & Houston, A. I. (1982) Short-term behaviour and lifetime fitness. In: Functional ontogeny, ed. McFarland, D.. Pitman.Google Scholar
McDowell, J. J. (1987) Foraging in patches: There's more to life than the marginal value theorem. In: Quantitative analyses of behavior. Vol. 6: Foraging, ed. Commons, M. L., Kacelnik, A. & Shettleworth, S. J.. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
McDowell, J. J. (1987a) A general framework for understanding the effects of variability and interruptions on foraging behaviour. Acta Biotheoretica 36:3–22.Google Scholar
McReynolds, W. T., Green, L. & Fisher, E. B. Jr. (1983) Self-control as choice management with reference to the behavioral treatment of obesity. Health Psychology 2:261–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McSweeney, F. K. (1974) Variability of responding on a concurrent schedule as a function of body weight. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 21:357–59.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McSweeney, F. K. (1975) Concurrent schedule responding as a function of body weight. Animal Learning b Behavior 3:264–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McSweeney, F. K., Melville, C. L. & Whipple, J. E. (1983) Herrnstein's equation for the rates of responding during concurrent schedules. Animal Learning and Behavior 11:275–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Menzel, E. W. (submitted) Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes): Problem seeking versus the bird-in-hand, least effort strategy.Google Scholar
Menzel, E. W. & Wyers, E. J. (1981) Cognitive aspects of foraging behavior. In: Foraging behavior: Ecological, ethological, and psychological approaches, ed. Kamil, A. C. & Sargent, T. D.. Garland.Google Scholar
Millar, A. & Navarick, D. ]. (1984) Self-control and choice in humans: Effects of video game playing as a positive reinforcer. Learning and Motivation 15:203–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, D. T., Weinstein, S. M. & Karniol, R. (1978) Effects of age and selfverbalization on children's ability to delay gratification. Developmental Psychology 14:569–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, H. L., Heiner, R. A. & Manning, S. W. (in press) Deciding between matching and maximizing: Data from pigeons and people. In: Quantitative analyses of behavior. Vol. 9: Economic approaches to human and animal choice, ed. Commons, M. L., Herrnstein, R. J. & Vaughan, W. M.. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Mischel, H. N. & Mischel, W. (1983) The development of children's knowledge of self-control strategies. Child Development 54:603–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mischel, W. (1966) Theory and research on the antecedents of self-imposed delay of reward. In: Progress in experimental personality research, ed. Maher, B. A.. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Mischel, W. (1973) Towards a cognitive social learning reconceptualization of personality. Psychological Review 80:252–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mischel, W. (1974) Processes in delay of gratification. In: Advances in experimental social psychology, ed. Berkowitz, L.. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Mischel, W. (1979) On the interface of cognition and personality. American Psychologist 34:740–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mischel, W. (1981a) Metacognition and the rules of delay. In: Social cognitive development: Frontiers and possible futures, ed. Flavell, J. H. & Ross, L.. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Mischel, W. (1981b) Objective and subjective rules for delay of gratification. In: Cognition in human motivation and learning, ed. d'Ydewalle, G. & Lens, W.. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Mischel, W. (1981c) Introduction to personality. Holt, Rhinehart & Winston.Google Scholar
Mischel, W. (1983) Delay of gratification as process and as person variable in development. In: Human development, ed. Magnusson, D. & Allen, V. L.. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Mischel, W. (1984) Convergences and challenges in the search for consistency. American Psychologist 39:351–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mischel, W. & Baker, N. (1975) Cognitive appraisals and transformations in delay behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 31:254–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mischel, W. & Ebbesen, E. B. (1970) Attention in delay of gratification. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 16:329–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mischel, W. & Grusee, J. (1967) Waiting for rewards and punishments: Effects of time and probability on choice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 5:24–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mischel, W. & Moore, B. S. (1980) The role of ideation in voluntary delay for symbolically presented rewards. Cognitive Therapy & Research 4:211–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mischel, W. & Peake, P. K. (1982) Beyond deja vu in the search for crosssituational consistency. Psychological Review 89:730–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moore, B., Mischel, W. & Zeiss, A. (1976) Comparative effects of the reward stimulus and its cognitive representation in voluntary delay. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 34:419–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moore, J. (1979) Choice and number of reinforcers. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 32:51–63.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moore, J. (1982) Choice and multiple reinforcers. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 37:115–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morris, C. J. (1986) The effects of occasional short (FR 1) reinforcement ratios on choice behavior. Psychological Record 36:63–68.Google Scholar
Mowrer, O. H. (1939) A stimulus-response analysis of anxiety and its role as a reinforcing agent. Psychological Review 46:553–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Navarick, D. J. (1982) Negative reinforcement and choice in humans. Learning and Motivation 13:361–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Navarick, D. J. (1985) Choice in humans: Functional properties of reinforcers established by instruction. Behavioural Processes 11:269–77.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Navarick, D. J. (1986) Human impulsivity and choice: A challenge to traditional operant methodology. Psychological Record 36:343–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Navarick, D. J. & Chellsen, J. (1983) Matching versus undermatching in the choice behavior of humans. Behaviour Analysis Letters 3:325–35.Google Scholar
Navarick, D. J. & Fantino, E. (1976) Self-control and general models of choice. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 2:75–87.Google Scholar
Oaten, A. (1977) Optimal foraging in patches: A case for stochasticity. Theoretical Population Biology 12:263–85.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O'Leary, K. D. (1968) The effects of self-instruction on immoral behavior. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 6:297–301.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oscar-Berman, M., Heyman, G. M., Bonner, R. T. & Ryder, J. (1980) Human neuropsychology: Some differences between Korsakoff and normal operant performance. Psychological Research 41:235–47.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Patterson, C. J. & Mischel, W. (1975) Plans to resist distraction. Developmental Psychology 11:369–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pierce, W. D. & Epling, W. F. (1984) On the persistence of cognitive explanation: Implications for behavior analysis. Behaviorism 12:15–27.Google Scholar
Pierce, W. D., Epling, W. F. & Greer, S. M. (1981) Human communication and the matching law. In: Quantification of steady-state operant behaviour, ed. Bradshaw, C. M., Szabadi, E. & Lowe, C. F.. Elsevier/North-Holland.Google Scholar
Pietrewicz, A. T. & Richards, J. B. (1985) Learning to forage: An ecological perspective. In: Issues in the ecological study of learning, ed. Johnston, T. D. & Pietrewicz, A. T.. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Poling, A., Blakely, E., Pellettiere, V. & Picker, M. (1987) Choice between sequences of fixed-ratio schedules: Effects of ratio values and probability of food delivery. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 47:225–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pomerleau, O. F., Bass, F. & Crown, V. (1975) The role of behavior modification in preventive medicine. New England Journal of Medicine 292:1277–82.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pomerleau, O. F., Fertig, J., Baker, L. & Cooney, N. (1983) Reactivity to alcohol cues in alcoholics and non-alcoholics: Implications for a stimulus control analysis of drinking. Addictive Behaviors 8:1–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Powers, W. T. (1973) Behavior: The control of perception. Aldine.Google Scholar
Pressley, M. (1979) Increasing children's self-control through cognitive interventions. Review of Educational Research 49:319–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pulliam, H. R. (1974) On the theory of optimal diets. American Naturalist 108:59–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pyke, G. H., Pulliam, H. R. & Charnov, E. L. (1977) Optimal foraging: A selective review of theory and tests. Quarterly Review of Biology 52:137–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rachlin, H. (1982) Absolute and relative consumption space. In: Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, ed. Bernstein, D. J.. University of Nebraska Press.Google Scholar
Rachlin, H. (1987) Animal choice and human choice. In: Advances in behavioral economics, vol. 1, ed. Green, L. & Kagel, J. H.. Ablex.Google Scholar
Rachlin, H., Battalio, R., Kagel, J. & Green, L. (1981) Maximization theory in behavioral psychology. Behavioral & Brain Sciences 4:371–417.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rachlin, H., Castrogiovanni, A. & Cross, D. (1987) Probability and delay in commitment. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 48:347–55.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rachlin, H. & Green, L. (1972) Commitment, choice and self-control. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 17:15–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rachlin, H., Logue, A. W., Gibbon, J. & Frankel, M. (1986) Cognition and behavior in studies of choice. Psychological Review 93:33–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rechten, C., Avery, M. & Stevens, A. (1983) Optimal prey selection: Why do great tits show partial preferences? Animal Behaviour 31:576–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rehm, L. P. (1984) Self-management therapy for depression. Advances in Behaviour Research & Therapy 6:83–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Revusky, S. (1977) Learning as a general process with an emphasis on data from feeding experiments. In: Food aversion learning, ed. Milgram, N. W., Krames, L. & Alloway, T. M.. Plenum.Google Scholar
Revusky, S. (1985) The general process approach to animal learning. In: Issues in the ecological study of learning, ed. Johnston, T. D. & Pietrewicz, A. T.. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Rodin, J. (1981) Current status of the internal-external hypothesis for obesity. American Psychologist 36:361–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rodriguez, M. L. & Logue, A. W. (1986) Independence of the amount and delay ratios in the generalized matching law. Animal Learning & Behavior 14:29–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rodriguez, M. L. & Logue, A. W. (1988) Adjusting delay to reinforcement: Comparing choice in pigeons and humans. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 14:105–17.Google ScholarPubMed
Rodriguez, M. L. & Mischel, W. (1987) Cognitive strategies and delay of gratification in older impulsive children. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Psychological Association, New York, N.Y.Google Scholar
Roitblat, H. L. (1982) The meaning of representation in animal memory. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 5:353–406.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sarafino, E. P., Russo, A., Barker, J., Consentino, A. M. & Titus, D. (1982) The effect of rewards on intrinsic interest: Developmental changes in the underlying processes. Journal of Genetic Psychology 141:29–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scheier, M. F. & Carver, C. S. (1988) A model of behavioral self-regulation: Translating intention into action. In: Advances in experimental social psychology, vol. 21, ed. Berkowitz, L.. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Schiflman, H. R. (1982) Sensation and perception: An integrated approach. Wiley.Google Scholar
Schmitt, D. R. (1974) Effects of reinforcement rate and reinforcer magnitude on choice behavior of humans. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 21:409–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schneider, J. W. (1973) Reinforcer effectiveness as a function of reinforcer rate and magnitude: A comparison of concurrent performances. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 20:461–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schoener, T. W. (1971) Theory of feeding strategies. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 2:369–404.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schoener, T. W. (1979) Generality of the size-distance relation in models of optimal feeding. American Naturalist 114:902–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schwarz, J. C., Schrager, J. B. & Lyons, A. E. (1983) Delay of gratification by preschoolers: Evidence for the validity of the choice paradigm. Child Development 54:620–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shepard, R. N. (1984) Ecological constraints on internal representation: Resonant kinematics of perceiving, imagining, thinking, and dreaming. Psychological Review 91:417–47.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shimoff, E., Catania, A. C. & Matthews, B. A. (1981) Uninstructed human responding: Sensitivity of low rate performance to schedule contingencies. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 36:207–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shull, R. L., Spear, D. J. & Bryson, A. E. (1981) Delay or rate of food delivery as a determiner of response rate. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 35:129–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Skinner, B. F. (1953) Science and human behavior. Free Press.Google Scholar
Skinner, B. F. (1974) About behaviorism. Knopf.Google Scholar
Skinner, B. F. (1984) Coming to terms with private events. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 7:572–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Snyderman, M. (1983a) Delay and amount of reward in a concurrent chain. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 39:437–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Snyderman, M. (1983b) Optimal prey selection: The effects of food deprivation. Behaviour Analysis Letters 3:359–69.Google Scholar
Solnick, J. V., Kannenberg, C. H., Eckerman, D. A. & Waller, M. B. (1980) An experimental analysis of impulsivity and impulse control in humans. Learning and Motivation 11:61–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mischel, W. & Baker, N. (1975) Cognitive appraisals and transformations in delay behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 31:254–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mischel, W. & Ebbesen, E. B. (1970) Attention in delay of gratification. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 16:329–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mischel, W. & Grusee, J. (1967) Waiting for rewards and punishments: Effects of time and probability on choice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 5:24–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mischel, W. & Moore, B. S. (1980) The role of ideation in voluntary delay for symbolically presented rewards. Cognitive Therapy & Research 4:211–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mischel, W. & Peake, P. K. (1982) Beyond deja vu in the search for crosssituational consistency. Psychological Review 89:730–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moore, B., Mischel, W. & Zeiss, A. (1976) Comparative effects of the reward stimulus and its cognitive representation in voluntary delay. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 34:419–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moore, J. (1979) Choice and number of reinforcers. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 32:51–63.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moore, J. (1982) Choice and multiple reinforcers. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 37:115–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morris, C. J. (1986) The effects of occasional short (FR 1) reinforcement ratios on choice behavior. Psychological Record 36:63–68.Google Scholar
Mowrer, O. H. (1939) A stimulus-response analysis of anxiety and its role as a reinforcing agent. Psychological Review 46:553–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Navarick, D. J. (1982) Negative reinforcement and choice in humans. Learning and Motivation 13:361–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Navarick, D. J. (1985) Choice in humans: Functional properties of reinforcers established by instruction. Behavioural Processes 11:269–77.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Navarick, D. J. (1986) Human impulsivity and choice: A challenge to traditional operant methodology. Psychological Record 36:343–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Navarick, D. J. & Chellsen, J. (1983) Matching versus undermatching in the choice behavior of humans. Behaviour Analysis Letters 3:325–35.Google Scholar
Navarick, D. J. & Fantino, E. (1976) Self-control and general models of choice. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 2:75–87.Google Scholar
Oaten, A. (1977) Optimal foraging in patches: A case for stochasticity. Theoretical Population Biology 12:263–85.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O'Leary, K. D. (1968) The effects of self-instruction on immoral behavior. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 6:297–301.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oscar-Berman, M., Heyman, G. M., Bonner, R. T. & Ryder, J. (1980) Human neuropsychology: Some differences between Korsakoff and normal operant performance. Psychological Research 41:235–47.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Patterson, C. J. & Mischel, W. (1975) Plans to resist distraction. Developmental Psychology 11:369–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pierce, W. D. & Epling, W. F. (1984) On the persistence of cognitive explanation: Implications for behavior analysis. Behaviorism 12:15–27.Google Scholar
Pierce, W. D., Epling, W. F. & Greer, S. M. (1981) Human communication and the matching law. In: Quantification of steady-state operant behaviour, ed. Bradshaw, C. M., Szabadi, E. & Lowe, C. F.. Elsevier/North-Holland.Google Scholar
Pietrewicz, A. T. & Richards, J. B. (1985) Learning to forage: An ecological perspective. In: Issues in the ecological study of learning, ed. Johnston, T. D. & Pietrewicz, A. T.. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Poling, A., Blakely, E., Pellettiere, V. & Picker, M. (1987) Choice between sequences of fixed-ratio schedules: Effects of ratio values and probability of food delivery. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 47:225–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pomerleau, O. F., Bass, F. & Crown, V. (1975) The role of behavior modification in preventive medicine. New England Journal of Medicine 292:1277–82.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pomerleau, O. F., Fertig, J., Baker, L. & Cooney, N. (1983) Reactivity to alcohol cues in alcoholics and non-alcoholics: Implications for a stimulus control analysis of drinking. Addictive Behaviors 8:1–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Powers, W. T. (1973) Behavior: The control of perception. Aldine.Google Scholar
Pressley, M. (1979) Increasing children's self-control through cognitive interventions. Review of Educational Research 49:319–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pulliam, H. R. (1974) On the theory of optimal diets. American Naturalist 108:59–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pyke, G. H., Pulliam, H. R. & Charnov, E. L. (1977) Optimal foraging: A selective review of theory and tests. Quarterly Review of Biology 52:137–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rachlin, H. (1982) Absolute and relative consumption space. In: Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, ed. Bernstein, D. J.. University of Nebraska Press.Google Scholar
Rachlin, H. (1987) Animal choice and human choice. In: Advances in behavioral economics, vol. 1, ed. Green, L. & Kagel, J. H.. Ablex.Google Scholar
Rachlin, H., Battalio, R., Kagel, J. & Green, L. (1981) Maximization theory in behavioral psychology. Behavioral & Brain Sciences 4:371–417.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rachlin, H., Castrogiovanni, A. & Cross, D. (1987) Probability and delay in commitment. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 48:347–55.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rachlin, H. & Green, L. (1972) Commitment, choice and self-control. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 17:15–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rachlin, H., Logue, A. W., Gibbon, J. & Frankel, M. (1986) Cognition and behavior in studies of choice. Psychological Review 93:33–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rechten, C., Avery, M. & Stevens, A. (1983) Optimal prey selection: Why do great tits show partial preferences? Animal Behaviour 31:576–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rehm, L. P. (1984) Self-management therapy for depression. Advances in Behaviour Research & Therapy 6:83–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Revusky, S. (1977) Learning as a general process with an emphasis on data from feeding experiments. In: Food aversion learning, ed. Milgram, N. W., Krames, L. & Alloway, T. M.. Plenum.Google Scholar
Revusky, S. (1985) The general process approach to animal learning. In: Issues in the ecological study of learning, ed. Johnston, T. D. & Pietrewicz, A. T.. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Rodin, J. (1981) Current status of the internal-external hypothesis for obesity. American Psychologist 36:361–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rodriguez, M. L. & Logue, A. W. (1986) Independence of the amount and delay ratios in the generalized matching law. Animal Learning & Behavior 14:29–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rodriguez, M. L. & Logue, A. W. (1988) Adjusting delay to reinforcement: Comparing choice in pigeons and humans. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 14:105–17.Google ScholarPubMed
Rodriguez, M. L. & Mischel, W. (1987) Cognitive strategies and delay of gratification in older impulsive children. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Psychological Association, New York, N.Y.Google Scholar
Roitblat, H. L. (1982) The meaning of representation in animal memory. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 5:353–406.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sarafino, E. P., Russo, A., Barker, J., Consentino, A. M. & Titus, D. (1982) The effect of rewards on intrinsic interest: Developmental changes in the underlying processes. Journal of Genetic Psychology 141:29–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scheier, M. F. & Carver, C. S. (1988) A model of behavioral self-regulation: Translating intention into action. In: Advances in experimental social psychology, vol. 21, ed. Berkowitz, L.. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Schiflman, H. R. (1982) Sensation and perception: An integrated approach. Wiley.Google Scholar
Schmitt, D. R. (1974) Effects of reinforcement rate and reinforcer magnitude on choice behavior of humans. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 21:409–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schneider, J. W. (1973) Reinforcer effectiveness as a function of reinforcer rate and magnitude: A comparison of concurrent performances. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 20:461–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schoener, T. W. (1971) Theory of feeding strategies. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 2:369–404.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schoener, T. W. (1979) Generality of the size-distance relation in models of optimal feeding. American Naturalist 114:902–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schwarz, J. C., Schrager, J. B. & Lyons, A. E. (1983) Delay of gratification by preschoolers: Evidence for the validity of the choice paradigm. Child Development 54:620–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shepard, R. N. (1984) Ecological constraints on internal representation: Resonant kinematics of perceiving, imagining, thinking, and dreaming. Psychological Review 91:417–47.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shimoff, E., Catania, A. C. & Matthews, B. A. (1981) Uninstructed human responding: Sensitivity of low rate performance to schedule contingencies. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 36:207–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shull, R. L., Spear, D. J. & Bryson, A. E. (1981) Delay or rate of food delivery as a determiner of response rate. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 35:129–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Skinner, B. F. (1953) Science and human behavior. Free Press.Google Scholar
Skinner, B. F. (1974) About behaviorism. Knopf.Google Scholar
Skinner, B. F. (1984) Coming to terms with private events. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 7:572–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Snyderman, M. (1983a) Delay and amount of reward in a concurrent chain. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 39:437–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Snyderman, M. (1983b) Optimal prey selection: The effects of food deprivation. Behaviour Analysis Letters 3:359–69.Google Scholar
Solnick, J. V., Kannenberg, C. H., Eckerman, D. A. & Waller, M. B. (1980) An experimental analysis of impulsivity and impulse control in humans. Learning and Motivation 11:61–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sonuga-Burke, E. J. S., Lea, S. E. G. & Webley, P. (in press a) Adaptivity and time discounting in intertemporal choice. In: Quantitative analysis of Behavior, vol. 9, Behavioral economics, ed. Commons, M. L., Herrnstein, R. J., Cross, J. C. & Vaughan, W.. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Sonuga-Burke, E. J. S., Lea, S. E. G. & Webley, P. (in press b) The development of adaptive choice in a self-control paradigm. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behacior.Google Scholar
Staddon, J. E. R., ed. (1980) Limits to action: The allocation of individual behavior. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Staddon, J. E. R. (1983) Adaptive behavior and learning. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Staddon, J. E. R. & Reid, A. K. (1987) Adaptation to reward. In: Foraging behavior, ed. Kamil, A. C., Krebs, J. R. & Pulliam, H. R.. Plenum.Google Scholar
Stephens, D. W. (1981) The logic of risk-sensitive foraging preferences. Anitnal Behaviour 29:628–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stephens, D. W. & Charnov, E. L. (1982) Optimal foraging: Some simple stochastic models. Behavioral Ecology and Sodobiology 10:251–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stephens, D. W. & Krebs, J. R. (1986) Foraging theory. Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Stephens, D. W., Lynch, J. F., Sorensen, A. E. & C., Gordon (1986) Preference and profitability: Theory and experiment. American Naturalist 127:533–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stevens, S. S. (1975) Psychophysics. Wiley.Google Scholar
Stubbs, D. A. & Pliskoff, S. S. (1969) Concurrent responding with fixed relative rate of reinforcement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 12:887–95.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Takahashi, M. & Iwamoto, T. (1986) Human concurrent performances: The effects of experience, instructions, and schedule correlated stimuli. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 45:257–68.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Terrace, H. S. (1966) Stimulus control. In: Operant behavior: Areas of research and application, ed. Honig, W. K.. Prentice-Hall.Google Scholar
Thomas, G. (1981) Contiguity, reinforcement rate and the law of effect. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 33B:33–43.Google Scholar
Thomas, G. (1983) Contiguity and contingency in instumental conditioning. Learning and Motivation 14:513–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Timberlake, W. (1983) The functional organization of appetitive behavior: Behavior systems and learning. In: Advances in the analysis of behavior: Vol. 3. Biological factors in learning, ed. Zeiler, M. D. & Harzem, P..Google Scholar
Timberlake, W. (1984) A temporal limit on the effect of future food on current performance in an analogue of foraging and welfare. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 41:117–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Timberlake, W. (1986) Unpredicted food produces a mode of behavior that affects rats' subsequent reactions to a conditioned stimulus: A behavior system approach to “context blocking.” Animal Learning and Behavior 14:276–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Timberlake, W., Gawley, D. J. & Lucas, G. A. (1987) Time horizons in rats foraging for food in temporally separated patches. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 13:302–9.Google ScholarPubMed
Timberlake, W. & Lucas, G. A. (1985) The basis of superstitious behavior: Response contingency, stimulus substitution, or appetitive behavior? Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 44:279–99.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Timberlake, W. (in press) Behavior systems and learning: From misbehavior to general principles. In: Contemporary learning theories: Instrumental conditioning theory and the impact of biological constraints on learning, ed. Klein, S. B. & Mowrer, R. R.. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Tinbergen, N. (1951) The study of instinct. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Tinbergen, N. (1953) The herring gull's world. Collins.Google Scholar
Todorov, J. C. (1973) Interaction of frequency and magnitude of reinforcement on concurrent performances. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 19:451–58.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Toner, I. J., Lewis, B. C. & Cribble, C. M. (1979) Evaluative verbalization and delay maintenance behavior in children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 28:205–10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Toner, I. J. & Smith, R. A. (1977) Age and overt verbalization in delaymaintenance behavior in children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 24:123–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Turelli, M., Cillespie, J. H. & Schoener, T. W. (1982) The fallacy of the fallacy of the averages in ecological optimization theory. American Naturalist 119:879–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van Haaren, F., van Hest, A. & van de Poll, N. E. (1988) Self-control in male and female rats. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 49:201–211.Google ScholarPubMed
Vygotsky, L. S. (1962) Thought and language. MIT Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978) Mind in society. Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Walsh, R. P. (1967) Sex, age, and temptation. Psychological Reports 21:625–29.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wasserman, E. A. (1983) Is cognitive psychology behavioral? Psychological Record 33:3–30.Google Scholar
Wearden, J. H. (1980) Undermatching on concurrent variable-interval schedules and the power law. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 33:149–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wiest, W. M. & Bell, B. (1985) Stevens's exponent for psychophysical scaling of perceived, remembered, and inferred distance. Psychological Bulletin 98:457–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williams, B. A. (1986) On the role of theory in behavior analysis. Behaviorism 14:111–24.Google Scholar
Williams, B. A. & Fantino, E. (1978) Effects on choice of reinforcement delay and conditioned reinforcement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 29:77–86.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilson, E. O. (1975) Sodobiology. Harvard Univeristy Press.Google Scholar
Wilson, G. T. & O'Leary, K. D. (1980) Principles of behavior therapy. Prentice-Hall.Google Scholar
Wilson, J. Q. & Herrnstein, R. J. (1985) Crime and human nature. Simon and Schuster.Google Scholar
Wong, P. T. P., Traupmann, K. L. & Brake, S. (1974) Does delay of reinforcement produce durable persistence? Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 26:218–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wong, R. (1984) Hoarding versus the immediate consumption of food among hamsters and gerbils. Behavioural Processes 9:3–11.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yamamura, N. & Tsuji, N. (1987) Optimal patch time under exploitative competition. American Naturalist 129:553–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yates, B. T. & Mischel, W. (1979) Young children's preferred attentional strategies for delaying gratification. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 37:286–300.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zabludoff, S. D., Wecker, J. & Caraco, T. (1988) Foraging choice in laboratory rats: Constant vs. variable delay. Behavioural Processes 16:95–110.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed