Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-mkpzs Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T04:23:52.435Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The origin and use of positional frames of reference in motor control

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 February 2010

Anatol G. Feldman  and
Mindy F. Levin
Anatol G. Feldman
Affiliation:
Institute of Biomedical Engineering, University of Montreal, Montreal, Quebec, CanadaH3C 4A7 Electronic mail: feldman@ere.umontreal.ca
Mindy F. Levin
Affiliation:
Research Centre, Rehabilitation Institute of Montreal, Montreal, Quebec, CanadaH3S 2J4.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

A hypothesis about sensorimotor integration (the λ model) is described and applied to movement control and kinesthesia. The central idea is that the nervous system organizes positional frames of reference for the sensorimotor apparatus and produces active movements by shifting the frames in terms of spatial coordinates. Kinematic and electromyographic patterns are not programmed, but emerge from the dynamic interaction among the system s components, including external forces within the designated frame of reference. Motoneuronal threshold properties and proprioceptive inputs to motoneurons may be cardinal components of the physiological mechanism that produces positional frames of reference. The hypothesis that intentional movements are produced by shifting the frame of reference is extended to multi-muscle and multi-degrees-of-freedom systems with a solution of the redundancy problem that allows the control of a joint alone or in combination with other joints to produce any desired limb configuration and movement trajectory. The model also implies that for each motor behavior, the nervous system uses a strategy that minimizes the number of changeable control variables and keeps the parameters of these changes invariant. Examples are provided of simulated kinematic and electromyographic signals from single- and multi-joint arm movements produced by suggested patterns of control variables. Empirical support is provided and additional tests of the model are suggested. The model is contrasted with others based on the ideas of programming of motoneuronal activity, muscle forces, stiffness, or movement kinematics.

Keywords

control variablesequilibrium pointsframes of referencekinesthesismotoneuronsmotor controlmulti-muscle systemspointingproprioceptionredundancy problemsynergy
Type
Target Article
Information
Behavioral and Brain Sciences , Volume 18 , Issue 4 , December 1995 , pp. 723 - 744
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1995

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abdusamatov, R. M., Adamovich, S. V., Berkinblit, M. B., Chemavsky, A. V. & Feldman, A. G. (1988) Rapid one-joint movements: A qualitative model and its experimental verification. In: Stance and motion: Facts and concepts, ed. Gurfinkel, V. S., Ioffe, M. E., Massion, J.Roll, J. P.. Plenum. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Abdusamatov, R. M., Adamovich, S. V. & Feldman, A. G. (1987) A model for one-joint motor control in man. In: Motor control, ed. Gatchev, G. N., Dimitrov, B.Gatev, P.. Plenum. [aAGF, SRG]Google Scholar
Abend, W., Bizzi, E. & Morasso, P. (1982) Human arm trajectory formation. Brain 105:331–48. [SRG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Abraham, R. H. & Shaw, C. D. (1992) Dynamics: The geometry of behavior. Addison-Wesley. [TGF]Google Scholar
Ackermann, E. (1990) Circular reactions and sensori-motor intelligence: When Piaget's theory meets cognitive models. Archives de Psychologie 58:65–78. [PM]Google Scholar
Adamovich, S. V. (1992) How does the nervous system control the equilibrium trajectory? Behavioral and Brain Sciences 15:704–5. [aAGF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Adamovich, S. V., Burlachkova, N. I. & Feldman, A. G. (1984) Wave nature of the central process of formation of the trajectories of change in the joint angle in man. Biophysics 29:130–34. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Adamovich, S. V., Levin, M. F. & Feldman, A. G. (1993) Merging different motor patterns: Coordination between rhythmical and discrete single-joint movements. Experimental Brain Research 99:325–37. [rAGF]Google Scholar
Agarwal, G. C. (1992) Movement control hypothesis: A lesson from history. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 15:705–6. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Akamatsu, N., Hannaford, B. & Stark, L. (1986) An intrinsic mechanism for the oscillatory contraction of muscle. Biological Cybernetics 52:219–27. [REAvE]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alexander, G. E., DeLong, M. R. & Crutcher, M. D. (1992) Do cortical and basal ganglionic motor areas use “motor programs” to control movement? Behavioral and Brain Sciences 15:656–65. [aAGF, SS]Google Scholar
Alexandrov, A., Frolov, A. & Massion, J. (1994) Voluntary forward bending in humans: A principal component analysis of axial synergies. In: Vestibular and neural front, ed. Taguchi, K., Igarashi, M. & Mori, S.. Elsevier. [AA]Google Scholar
Amis, A., Prochazka, A., Short, D., Trend, P. StJ. & Ward, A. (1987) Relative displacements in muscle and tendon during human arm movements. Journal of Physiology 389:37–44. [RMcNA]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
An, K. N., Hui, F. C., Morrey, B. F., Linsscheid, R. L. & Chao, E. Y. (1981) Muscles across the elbow joint: A biomechanical analysis. Journal of Biomechanics 14:659–69. [RMcNA]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Andersson, O. & Grillner, S. (1981). Peripheral control of the cat's step cycle: 2. Phase-dependent effects of the ramp-movements of the hip during “fictive locomotion.” Acta Physiologica Scandinavica 113:89–101. [TMH]Google Scholar
Andersson, O. & Grillner, S. (1983) Peripheral control of the cat's step cycle: 2. Entrainment of the central pattern generators for locomotion by sinusoidal hip movements during “fictive locomotion.” Acta Physiologica Scandinavica 118:229–39. [NGH]Google Scholar
Andersson, O., Grillner, S., Lindquist, M. & Zomlefer, M. (1978) Peripheral control of the spinal pattern generators for locomotion in cat. Brain Research 150:625–30. [TMH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Andronov, A. A., Witt, A. A. & Haiken, S. E. (1959) Theory of oscillations. Moscow: Physmat (in Russian). [aAGF]Google Scholar
Angel, R. W. (1973) Spasticity and tremor. Effects on the silent period and the after-volley. In: New developments in electromyography and clinical neurophysiology, vol. 3, ed. Desmedt, J. E.. Karger. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Appelberg, B., Johansson, H. & Sojka, P. (1986) Fusimotor reflexes in triceps surae muscle elicited by stretch of muscles in the contralateral hind limb of the cat. Journal of Physiology (London) 373:419–41. [aAGF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arshavsky, Y. I., Gelfand, I. M. & Orlovsky, G. N. (1985) The cerebellum and control of rhythmical movements. In: The motor system in neurobiology, ed. Evarts, E. V., Wise, S. P. & Bousfield, D.. Elsevier. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Asatryan, D. G. & Feldman, A. G. (1965) Functional tuning of the nervous system with control of movement or maintenance of a steady posture: 1. Mechanographic analysis of the work of the limb on execution of a postural task. Biophysics 10:925–35. [arAGF]Google Scholar
Atkeson, C. G. & Hollerbach, J. M. (1985) Kinematic features of unrestrained vertical arm movements. Journal of Neuroscience 5:2318–30. [PH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Babinski, J. (1899) De l'asynergie cérébelleuse. Revue Neurologique 7:806–16. [AA]Google Scholar
Bayev, K. V. (1978) Central locomotor program, for the cat's hindlimb. Neuroscience 3:1081–92. [TMH]Google Scholar
Becker, W. & Jurgens, R. (1979) An analysis of the saccadic system by means of double step stimuli. Vision Research 19:967–83. [MD]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beek, P. J. & Van Wieringen, P. C. W. (1994) Introduction. Human Movement Science 3/4:297–300. [RI]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Belen'kii, V. E., Curfinkel, V. S. & Pal'tsev, E. I. (1967) On the elements of control of voluntary movement. Biofizica 12:135–41 (in Russian). [JRF]Google Scholar
Bennett, D. J., Hollerbach, J. M., Xu, Y. & Hunter, I. W. (1992) Time-varying stiffness of human elbow joint during cyclic voluntary movement. Experimental Brain Research 88:433–42. [aAGF, PM]Google Scholar
Bennett, M. B., Ker, R. F., Dimery, N. J. & Alexander, R. McN. (1986) Mechanical properties of various mammalian tendons. Journal of Zoology A 209:537–48. [RMcNA]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berkinblit, M. B., Feldman, A. G. & Fukson, O. I. (1986) Adaptability of innate motor patterns and motor control mechanisms. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 9:585–638. [arAGF, SG, MLL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berkinblit, M. B., Gelfand, I. M. & Feldman, A. G. (1986) A model for the control of multi-joint movements. Bioflzika 31:728–38. [SRG]Google Scholar
Bernstein, N. A. (1935) The problem of interrelation between coordination and localization. Archives of Biological Science 38:1–35 (in Russian). [arACF, MLL, KHP]Google Scholar
Bernstein, N. A. (1947) On the construction of movements. Moscow: Medgiz (in Russian). [rAGF]Google Scholar
Bernstein, N. A. (1967) The coordination and regulation of movements. Pergamon. [arAGF]Google Scholar
Bilodeau, M., Arsenault, A. B., Gravel, D. & Bourbonnais, D. (1990) The influence of an increase in the level of force on the EMG power spectrum of elbow extensors. European Journal of Applied Physiology 61:461–66. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Bingham, G. P., Schmidt, R. C. & Rosenblum, L. D. (1989) Hefting for a maximum distance throw: A smart perceptual mechanism. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 15:507–28. [CCP]Google Scholar
Bizzi, E., Accornero, N., Chappie, W. & Hogan, N. (1984) Posture control and trajectory formation during arm movements. Journal of Neurosdence 4:2738–44. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Bizzi, E., Dev, P., Morasso, P. & Polit, A. (1978) Effect of load disturbances during centrally initiated movements. Journal of Neurophysiology 39:435–44. [LDP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bizzi, E., Hogan, N., Miissa-Ivaldi, F. A. & Gistzer, S. (1992) Does the nervous system use equalibrium-point control to guide single and multiple joint movements? Behavioral ami Brain Sciences 15:603–13. [aAGF, MD, TGF, LDP]Google Scholar
Bizzi, E., Mussa-Ivaldi, F. A. & Giszter, S. F. (1991) Computations underlying the execution of movement: A novel biological perspective. Science 253:287–91. [SG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bloedel, J. R. (1992) Functional heterogeneity with structural homogeneity: How does the cerebellum operate? Behavioral and Brain Sciences 15:666–78. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Blouin, J., Bard, C., Teasdale, N., Paillard, J., Fleury, M., Forget, R. & Lamare, Y. (1993) Reference systems for coding spatial information in normal subject and a deafferented patient. Experimental Brain Research 93:324–31. [arAGF, FL]Google Scholar
Bock, O. (1990) Load compensation in human goal-directed arm movements. Behavioural & Brain Research 41:167–77. [aAGF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bock, O. & Arnold, K. (1993) Error accumulation and error correction in sequential pointing movements. Experimental Brain Research 95:111–17. [aAGF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boff, K. R. & Lincoln, J. E. (1988) Vibration and display perception. Engineering Data Compendium: Human Percejition and Performance 2064–2133. [PVMcD]Google Scholar
Bouisset, S. & Zattara, M. (1987) Biomechanical study of the programming of anticipatory postural adjustments associated with voluntary movement. journal of Biomechanics 20:735–42. [JRF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boyd, I. A., Gladden, M. I., McWilliam, P. N. & Ward, J. (1977) Control of dynamic and static nuclear bag fibres and nuclear chain fibres by gamma and beta-axons in isolated cat muscle spindles. Journal of Physiology (London) 265:133–62. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Brooks, V. B., Horvath, F., Atkin, A., Kozlovskaya, I. & Uno, M. (1969) Reversible changes in voluntary movement during cooling of sub-cerebellar nucleus. Federation Proceedings 28:396. [KHP]Google Scholar
Brown, T. G. (1911) The intrinsic factors in the act of progression in the mammal. Proceedings of the Royal Society, London, Series B 84:30819. [TMH, rAGF]Google Scholar
Brown, T. G. (1914) On the nature of the fundamental activity of the nervous centres: Together with an analysis of the conditioning of rhythmic activity in progression, and a theory of the evolution of function in the nervous system. Journal of Physiology (London) 48:18–46. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Bruce, E. N. & Ackerson, L. M. (1986) High-frequency oscillations in human electromyograms during voluntary contractions. Journal of Neurophysiology 56:542–53. [TMH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brunn, D. E. & Dean, J. (1994) Intersegmental and local intemeurons in the metathorax of the stick insect Carausius morosus which monitor middle leg position. Journal of Neurophysiology 72:1208–19. [JD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bullock, D. & Grossberg, S. (1988) Neural dynamics of planned arm movements: Emergent invariants and speed-accuracy properties during trajectory formation. Psychological Reviews 95:49–90. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Burgess, P. R. (1992) Equilibrium points and sensory templates. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 15:720–22. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Burström, L. & Lundström, R. (1994) Absorption of vibration energy in the human hand and arm. Ergonomics 37:879–90. [PVMcD]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Busemeyer, J. R. & Townsend, J. T. (1993) Decision field theory: A dynamic cognitive approach to decision making in an uncertain environment. Psychological Review 100:432–59. [TGF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caminiti, R., Johnson, P. B. & Urbano, A. (1990) Making arm movements within different parts of space: Dynamic aspects in the primate motor cortex. Journal of Neuroscience 10:2039–58. [aAGF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Capaday, C. (1994) The effects of a tonic increase of presynaptic inhibition of muscle spindle afferents on the stretch reflex parameters of the cat. Society for Neuroscience Abstracts 20:1583. [rAGF]Google Scholar
Capaday, C. & Stein, R. B. (1986) Amplitude modulation of the soleus H-reflex in the human during walking and standing. Journal of Neuroscience 6:1308–13. [aAGF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cavalleri, P. & Catz, R. (1989) Pattern of projections of group la afferents from forearm muscles to motoneurones supplying biceps and triceps muscles in man. Experimental Brain Research 78:465–78. [JBJS]Google Scholar
Cheney, P. D. & Fetz, E. E. (1984) Corticomotoneuronal cells contribute to long-latency stretch reflexes in the rhesus monkey. Journal of Physiology 349:249–72. [SS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Christakos, C. N., Cohen, M. I., Barnhardt, R. & Shaw, C.-F. (1991) Fast rhythms in phrenic motoneuron and nerve discharges. Journal of Neurophysiology 66:674–87. [TMH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clement, G., Gurfinkel, V. S., Lestienne, F. G., Lipshits, M. I. & Popov, K. E. (1984) Adaptation of postural control to weightlessness. Experimental Brain Research 57:61–72. [FL]Google Scholar
Clement, G., Gurfinkel, V. S., Lestienne, F. G., Lipshits, M. I. & Popov, K. E. (1985) Changes of posture during transient perturbations in microgravity. Aviation, Space and Environmental Medicine 56:666–71. [FL]Google Scholar
Cole, K. J., Gracco, V. L. & Abbs, J. H. (1984) Autogenic and nonautogenic sensorimotor actions in the control of multiartieulate hand movements. Experimental Brain Research 56:582–85. [GEL]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Conway, B. A., Hultborn, H. & Kiehn, O. (1987). Proprioceptive input resets central locomotor rhythm in the spinal cat. Experimental Brain Research 68:643–56. [NGH, TMH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cope, T. C. & Clark, B. D. (in press) Are there important exceptions to the size principle of alpha motoneurone recruitment? In: Alpha and gamma motor systems, ed. Taylor, A., Gladden, M. F. & Durbaba, R.. Plenum. [TRN]Google Scholar
Corbridge, C. & Griffin, M. J. (1991) Effects of vertical vibration on passenger activities—writing and drinking. Ergonomics 34:1313–32. [PVMcD]Google Scholar
Cordo, P. & Harnad, S., eds. (1994) Movement control. Cambridge University Press. [DMC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crago, P. E., Houk, J. C. & Hasan, Z. (1976) Regulatory action of human stretch reflex. Journal of Neurophysiology 39:925–35. [rAGF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Creed, R. S., Denny Brown, D., Eccles, J. C., Liddell, E. G. T. & Sherrington, C. S. (1932) Tlie reflex activity of the spinal cord. Oxford University Press. [LDP, rAGF]Google Scholar
Crenna, P., Frigo, C., Massion, J. & Pedotti, A. (1987) Forward and backward axial synergies in man. Experimental Brain Research 65:538–48. [AA]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cruse, H. (1986). Constraints for joint angle control of the human arm. Biological Cybernetics 54:125–32. [CEW]Google Scholar
Cruse, H. & Bruwer, M. (1987) The human arm as a redundant manipulator: The control of path and joint angles. Biological Cybernetics 57:137–44. [JD]Google Scholar
Cruse, H., Bruwer, M. & Dean, J. (1993) The control of the movement of a 3-joint and a 41-joint redundant manipulator. Journal of Motor Behavior 25:131–39. [JD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cruse, H., Wishmeyer, E., Bruwer, M., Brockfeld, P. & Dress, A. (1990) On the cost functions for the control of the human arm movement. Biological Cybernetics 62:519–28. [MD]Google Scholar
Cults, A., Alexander, R. McN. & Ker, R. F. (1991) Ratios of cross-sectional areas of muscles and their tendons in a healthy human forearm. Journal of Anatomy 176:133–37. [RMcNA]Google Scholar
Davis, W. R. & Kelso, J. A. S. (1982) Analysis of “invariant characteristics” in the motor control of Down's syndrome and normal subjects. Journal of Motor Behavior 14:194–212. [aAGF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Day, B. L. & Marsden, C. D. (1982) Accurate repositioning of the human thumb against unpredictable dynamic loads is dependent upon peripheral feedback. Journal of Physiology (London) 327:393–407. [aAGF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de Graaf, J. B., Sittig, A. C. & Denier van der Gon, J. J. (1991) Misdirections in slow goal-directed arm movements and pointer-setting tasks. Experimental Brain Research 84:434–38. [aAGF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dean, J. (1990) Coding proprioceptive information to control movement to a target: Simulation with a simple neural network. Biological Cybernetics 63:115–20. [JD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dean, J. & Bruwer, M. (1994) Control of human arm movements in two dimensions: Paths and joint control in avoiding simple linear obstacles. Experimental Brain Research 97:497–514. [JD]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DeLuca, C. J. & Mambrito, B. (1987) Voluntary control of motor units in human antagonist muscles: Coactivation and reciprocal activation. Journal of Neurophysiology 58:525–42. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Denier van der Gon, J. J., Tax, T., Gielen, S. & Erkelens, C. (1991) Synergism in the control of force and movement in the forearm. Reviews of Physiology, Biochemistry and Pharmacology, vol. 118. Springer-Verlag. [aAGF]Google Scholar
DeSerres, S. J. & Milner, T. E. (1991) Wrist muscle activation patterns and stiffness associated with stable and unstable mechanical loads. Experimental Brain Research 86:451–58. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Desmurget, M., Paulignan, Y., Urquizar, C. & Prablanc, C. (1994) Aspects on multi-joint flexibility in a power grip task. Paper presented at the 17th annual meeting of the European Neuroscience Association, Vienna. [MD]Google Scholar
Desmurget, M., Prablanc, C.Rossetti, Y., Arzi, M.Paulignan, Y. & Urquizar, C. (in press) Postural and synergic control for three dimensional movements of reaching and grasping. Journal of Neurophysiology.Google Scholar
Doemges, F. & Rack, P. M. H. (1992) Changes in the stretch reflex of the human 1st dorsal interosseous muscle during different tasks. Journal of Physiology (London) 447:563–73. [aAGF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Douglas, R. J. & Martin, K. A. C. (1991) Opening the grey box. Trends in Neurosciences 14:286–92. [aAGF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Drew, T. (1991) The role of the motor cortex in the control of gait modifications in the cat. In: New biological basis of human locomotion, ed. Shimamura, M., Grillner, S.Edgerton, E. R.. Tokyo: Japan Scientific Press. [rAGF]Google Scholar
Drew, T. & Rossignol, S. (1987) A kinematic and electromyographic study of cutaneous reflexes evoked from the forelimb of unrestrained walking cats. Journal of Neurophysiology 57:1160–84. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Dum, R. P. & Strick, P. L. (1991) The origin of corticospinal projections from the premotor areas in the frontal lobe. Journal of Neuroscience 11:667–89. [SS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Duysens, J. & Pearson, K. G. (1980) Inhibition of flexor burst generation by loading ankle extensor muscles in walking cats. Brain Research 187:321–32. [TMH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Edelman, G. (1992) Bright air, brilliant fire. Penguin. [RI]Google Scholar
Eltze, J. (1994) Biologisch orientierte Entwicklung einer sechsbeinigen Laufmachine. Springer-Verlag. [JD]Google Scholar
Evarts, E. V. (1966) Pyramidal tract activity associated with a conditioned hand movement in the monkey. Journal of Neurophysiology 29:1011–27. [KHP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Evarts, E. V.(1967) Represenation of movements and muscles by pyramidal tract neurons of the precentral motor cortex. In: Neurophysiological basis of normal and abnormal motor activities, ed. Yahr, M. D. & Purpura, D. P.. Raven. [KHP]Google Scholar
Evarts, E. V. (1968) Relation of pyramidal tract activity to force exerted during voluntary movement. Journal of Neurophysiology 31:14–27. [KHP]Google Scholar
Evarts, E. V. (1969) Activity of pyramidal tract neurons during postural fixation. Journal of Neurophysiology 32:375–85. [KHP]Google Scholar
Farmer, S. F., Bremner, F. D., Halliday, D. M., Rosenberg, J. R. & Stephens, J. A. (1993) The frequency content of common synaptic inputs to motoneurones studied during voluntary isometric contraction in man. Journal of Physiology (London) 470:127–55. [TMH]Google Scholar
Feldman, A. G. (1966a) Functional tuning of the nervous system with control of movement or maintenance of a steady posture: 2. Controllable parameters of the muscle. Biophysics 11:565–78. [aAGF, MB, LDP]Google ScholarPubMed
Feldman, A. G. (1966b) Functional tuning of the nervous sytem with control of movement or maintenance of a steady posture: 3. Mechanomyographic analysis of execution by man of the simplest motor task. Biophysics 11:667–75. [aAGF, TGF]Google Scholar
Feldman, A. G. (1979) Central and reflex mechanisms in the control of movement. Moscow: Nauka (in Russian). [arAGF]Google Scholar
Feldman, A. G. (1980a) Superposition of motor programs: 1. Rhythmic forearm movements in man. Neuroscience 5:81–90. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Feldman, A. G. (1980b) Superposition of motor programs: 2. Rapid forearm flexion in man. Neuroscience 5:91–95. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Feldman, A. G. (1986) Once more on the equilibrium point hypothesis (λ-model) for motor control. Journal of Motor Behavior 18:17–54. [TGF, rAGF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Feldman, A. G. (1992) Fundamentals of motor control, kinesthesia and spinal neurons: In search of a theory. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 15:735–37. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Feldman, A. G. (1993) The coactivation command for antagonist muscles involving Ib intemeurons in mammalian motor control systems: An electrophysiologically testable model. Neuroscience Letters 155:167–70. [arAGF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Feldman, A. G., Adamovich, S. V., Ostry, D. J. & Flanagan, J. R. (1990) The origin of electromyograms—Explanations based on the equilibrium point hypothesis. In: Multiple muscle systems: Biomechanics and movement organization, ed. Winters, J. M. & Woo, S. L.-Y.. Springer-Verlag. [JMW, UW, rAGF]Google Scholar
Feldman, A. G. & Latash, M. L. (1982) Interaction of afferent and efferent signals underlying joint position sense: Empirical and theoretical approaches. Journal of Motor Behavior 14:174–93. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Feldman, A. G. & Levin, M. L. (1993) Control variables and related concepts in motor control. Concepts in Neuroscience 4:25–51. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Feldman, A. G. & Orlovsky, G. N. (1972) The influence of different descending systems on the tonic stretch reflex in the cat. Experimental Neurology 37:481–94. [arAGF]Google Scholar
Fetz, E. E. (1992) Are movement parameters recognizably coded in the activity of single neurons? Behavioral and Brain Sciences 15:679–90. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Fetz, E. E. & Cheney, P. D. (1980) Postspike facilitation of forelimb muscle activity by primate corticomotoneuronal cells. Journal of Neurophysiology 44:751–72. [SS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fidelman, U. & Gilad, I. (1992) Three styles of hand movements: A possible relation to three kinds of familial handedness. Cybernetica 35:17–49. [UF]Google Scholar
Fitts, P. M. (1954) The information capacity of discrete motor responses. Journal of Experimental Psychology 67:381–91. [aAGF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flanagan, J. R., Feldman, A. G. & Ostry, D. J. (1992) Equilibrium trajectories underlying rapid target-directed arm movements. In: Tutorials in motor behavior II, eds. Stelmach, G. E. & Requin, J.. North Holland. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Flanagan, J. R., Ostry, D. J. & Feldman, A. G. (1990) Control of human jaw and multi-joint arm movements. In: Cerebral control of speech and limb movements, ed. Hammond, G.. Springer-Verlag. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Flanagan, J. R., Ostry, D. J. & Feldman, A. G. (1993) Control of trajectory modifications in target-directed reaching. Journal of Motor Behavior 25:140–52. [aAGF, SRC, JBJS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Flanagan, J. R. & Tresilian, J. R. (1994) Grip-load force coupling: A general control strategy for transporting objects. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 20:944–57. [JRF]Google Scholar
Flanagan, J. R., Tresilian, J. R. & Wing, A. M. (1993) Coupling of grip force and load force during arm movements with grasped objects. Neuroscience Letters 152:53–56. [JRF, rAGF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Flanagan, J. R. & Wing, A. M. (1993) Modulation of grip force with load force during point-to-point movements. Experimental Brain Research 95:131–43. [JRF]Google Scholar
Flanders, M., Tillery, S. I. H. & Soechting, J. F. (1992) Early stages in a sensorimotor transformation. Beliavioral and Brain Sciences 15:309–62. [aAGF, MD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flash, T. & Henis, E. (1991) Arm trajectory modifications during reaching towards visual targets. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 3:220–30. [aAGF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Flash, T. & Hogan, N. (1985) The coordination of arm movements: An experimentally confirmed mathematical model. Journal of Neuroscience 5:1688–1703. [MD]Google Scholar
Folkins, J. W. & Abbs, J. H. (1975) Lip and jaw motor control during speech: Responses to resistive loading of the jaw. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research 18:207–20. [TGF]Google Scholar
Forget, R. & Lamarre, Y. (1987) Rapid elbow flexion in the absence of proprioceptive and cutaneous feedback. Human Neurobiology 6:27–37. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Forssberg, H. (1985) Ontogeny of human locomotor control: 1. Infant stepping, supported locomotion, and transition to independent locomotion. Experimental Brain Research 57:480–93. [ET]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fortier, P. A., Smith, A. M. & Kalaska, J. F. (1993) Comparison of cerebellar and motor cortex activity during reaching: Directional tuning and response variability. Journal of Neurophysiology 69:1136–49. [rAGF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Friedli, W. G., Cohen, L., Hallett, M., Stanhope, S. & Simon, S. R. (1988) Postural adjustments associated with rapid arm movements: 2. Biomechanical analysis. Journal of Neurological and Neurosurgical Psychiatry 51:232–43. [JRF]Google Scholar
Frolov, A. A., Roschin, V. Y. & Biryukova, E. V. (1994) Adaptive neural network model of multi-joint movement control of by working point velocity. Neural Network World 2:141–56. [AA]Google Scholar
Fukson, O. I., Berkinblit, M. B. & Feldman, A. G. (1980) The spinal frog takes into account the scheme of its body during the wiping reflex. Science 209:1261–63. [SG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fuller, J., Maldonado, H. & Schlag, J. (1983) Vestibular-oculomotor interaction in cat eye-head movements. Brain Research 271:241–50. [MD]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gandevia, S. C. & Burke, D. (1992) Does the nervous system depend on kinesthetic information to control natural limb movements? Behavioral and Brain Sciences 15:614–32. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Gelfand, I. M. & Tsetlin, M. L. (1971) On mathematical modeling of mechanisms of central nervous system. In: Models of the structural-functional organization of certain biological systems, ed. Gelfand, I. M., Gurfinkel, V. S., Fomin, S. V. & Tsetlin, M. L.. MIT Press. [arACF]Google Scholar
Georgopoulos, A. P. (1991) Higher order motor control. Annual Review of Neuroscience 14:361–77. [GEL]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Georgopoulos, A. P., Ashe, J., Smyrnis, N. & Taira, M. (1992) The motor cortex and die coding of force. Science 233:1416–19. [arACF, KHP]Google Scholar
Georgopoulos, A. P. & Grillner, S. (1989) Visuomotor coordination in reaching and locomotion. Science 245:1209–10. [AEP]Google Scholar
Georgopoulos, A. P., Kalaska, J. F., Caminiti, R. & Massey, J. T. (1983) Interruption of motor cortical discharge subserving aimed arm movements. Experimental Brain Research 49:327–40. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Georgopoulos, A. P., Schwartz, A. B. & Kettner, R. F. (1986) Neuronal population coding of movement direction. Science 233:1416–19. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Gerilovsky, L., Struppler, A., Velho, F. & Niehage, O. (1990) Discharge pattern of tonically activated motor units during unloading. Electromyography and Clinical Neurophysiology 30:459–67. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Ghez, C., Gordon, J., Ghilardi, M. F., Christakos, C. M. & Cooper, S. E. (1990) Roles of proprioceptive input in the programing of arm trajectories. Cold Spring Harbor Symposia in Quantitative Biology 55:837–47. [aAGF, CCP]Google Scholar
Ghez, C., Gordon, J., Ghilardi, M. F. & Sainberg, R. (1995) Contributions of vision and proprioception to accuracy in limb movements. In: The cognitive neurosdences, ed. Gazzaniga, M. S.. Bradford/MIT. [CCP]Google Scholar
Gibson, J. J. (1979) The ecologic approach to visual perception. Houghton Mifflin. [PVMcD, REAvE]Google Scholar
Gielen, C. C. A. M., van der Heuvel, P. J. M. & Denier van der Gon, J. J. (1984) Modification of muscle activation patterns during fast goal-directed movements. Journal of Motor Behavior 16:2–19. [aAGF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gielen, C. C. A. M. & van Ingen Schenau, G. J. (1992) The constrained control of force and position in multi-link manipulators. IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man and Cybernetics 22:1214–19. [CCAMG]Google Scholar
Gielen, C. C. A. M. & van Zuylen, E. J. (1986) Coordination of arm muscles during flexion and supination application of the tensor analysis approach. Neuroscience 17:527–39. [aAGF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gilad, I. & Fidelman, U. (1990) The motoric role of the right cerebral hemisphere: Performance analysis of micromovements. Cybernetica 33:151–78. [UF]Google Scholar
Giszter, S. F. (1994) Combination of primitive force-generating motor elements during reflex behaviors. Proceedings of the 16th Annual IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society Conference (on CD-ROM; ISBN 0–7803–9974–9). [SC]Google Scholar
Giszter, S. F., Mussa-Ivaldi, F. A. & Bizzi, E. (1992) Movement primitives in the frog spinal cord. In: Neural systems, vol. 2, ed. Eeckman, F. H.. Kluwer. [SG]Google Scholar
Giszter, S. F., Mussa-Ivaldi, F. A. & Bizzi, E. (1993) Convergent force fields organized in the frog spinal cord. Journal of Neuroscience 13:467–91. [SC]Google Scholar
Glansdorff, P. & Prigogine, I. (1971) Thermodynamic theory of structure, stability and fluctuations. Wiley. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Goldberger, M. E. & Murray, M. (1974) Restitution of function and collateral sprouting in the cat spinal cord: The deafferented animal. Journal of Comparative Neurology 158:37–54. [aAGF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gomi, H., Koike, Y. & Kawato, M. (1992) Human hand stiffness during discrete point-to-point multi-joint movements. Proceedings of the 14th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (Paris, 10 29–11 1, 1992). Piscataway, NJ: IEEE Service Center. [PM]Google Scholar
Goodin, D. S., Aminoff, M. J. & Shih, P.-Y. (1990) Evidence that the longlatency stretch responses of the human wrist extensor muscle involve a transcerebral pathway. Brain 113:1075–91. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Goodman, S. R. & Gottlieb, G. L. (1995) Analysis of kinematic variables of multi-joint reaching movement. Biological Cybernetics. [SRG]Google Scholar
Gossard, J.-P., Brownstone, R. M., Barajon, I. & Hultborn, H. (1994). Transmission in a locomotor-related group Ib pathway from hindlimb extensor muscles in the cat. Experimental Brain Research 98:213–28. [TMH]Google Scholar
Gottlieb, G. L. (1992) Kinematics is only a (good) start. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 15:749–50. [GLG]Google Scholar
Gottlieb, G. L. (1993) A computational model of the simplest motor program. Journal of Motor Beliavior 25(3):153–61. [GLG]Google Scholar
Gottlieb, G. L. (1994) The generation of the efferent command and the importance of joint compliance in fast elbow movements. Experimental Brain Research 97:545–50. [GLG, rAGF]Google Scholar
Gottlieb, G. L. (1995a) Relations between joint torque, motion and EMG patterns at the human elbow. Experimental Brain Research 103:164–67. [GLG]Google Scholar
Gottlieb, G. L. (1995b) On the voluntary movement of compliant loads. Submitted. [GLG]Google Scholar
Gottlieb, G. L. & Agarwal, G. C. (1988) Compliance of single joints: Elastic and plastic characteristics. Journal of Neurophysiology 59:937–51. [arAGF, SS]Google Scholar
Gottlieb, G. L., Corcos, D. M. & Agarwal, G. C. (1989a) Strategies for the control of voluntary movements with one mechanical degree of freedom. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 12:189–250. [aAGF, GLG]Google Scholar
Gottlieb, G. L., Corcos, D. M. & Agarwal, G. C. (1989b) Organizing principles for single joint movements: 1. A speed insensitive strategy. Journal of Neurophysiology 62:342–57. [DMC, GLG]Google Scholar
Gottlieb, G. L., Corcos, D. M. & Agarwal, G. C. (1992) Bioelectrical and biomechanical correlates of rapid human elbow movement. In: Tutorials in Motor Behavior II, ed. Stelmach, G. E. & Requin, J.. Elsevier. [GLG]Google Scholar
Gracco, V. L. & Abbs, J. H. (1985) Dynamic control of the perioral systems during speech: Kinematic analyses of autogenic and nonautogenic sensorimotor processes. Journal of Neurophysiology 54:418–32. [GEL]Google Scholar
Granit, R. (1970) The basis of motor control. Academic Press. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Granit, R., Kernell, D. & Lamarre, Y. (1966) Synaptic stimulation superimposed on motoneurones firing in the secondary range to injected current. Journal of Physiology (Lonilon) 187:401–15. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Grillner, S. (1969) Supraspinal and segmental control of static and dynamic g-motoneurones in the cat. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica [Suppl.] 327:1–34. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Grillner, S. (1972) The role of muscle stiffness in meeting the changing postural and locomotor requirements for force development by the ankle extensors. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica 86:92–108. [PVMcD]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grillner, S. (1975) Locomotion in vertebrates: Central mechanisms and reflex interactions. Physiological Reviews 55:247–304. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Grillner, S. (1981). Control of locomotion in bipeds, tetrapods, and fish. In: Handbook of physiology: sec. 1, vol. 2, pt. 2. The nervous system: Motor control, ed. Brooks, V. B.. American Physiological Society. [TMH]Google Scholar
Grillner, S. & Rossignol, S. (1978). On the initiation of the swing phase of locomotion in chronic spinal cats. Brain Research 146:269–77. [TMH]Google Scholar
Grillner, S. & Zangger, P. (1979). On the central generation of locomotion in the low spinal cat. Experimental Brain Research 34:241–61. [TMH]Google Scholar
Grillner, S. & Zangger, P. (1984) The effect of dorsal root transection on the efferent motor pattern in the cat's hindlimb during locomotion. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica 120:393–405. [TMH]Google Scholar
Grossberg, S. & Kuperstein, M. (1989) Neural dynamics of adaptive sensory motor control. Pergamon. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Guiard, Y., Diaz, C. & Beaubaton, D. (1983) Left-hand advantage in right-handers for spatial constant error: Preliminary evidence in a unilateral ballistic aimed movement. Neuropsychologia 21:111–15. [UF]Google Scholar
Guitton, D. & Volle, M. (1987) Gaze control in humans: Eye-head coordination during orienting movements to targets within and beyond the oculomotor range. Journal of Neurophysiology 58:427–59. [MD]Google Scholar
Gurfinkel, V. S., Lestienne, F. G., Levik, Yu. S., Popov, K. W. & Lefort, L. (1993) Egocentric references and human spatial orientationin microgravity: 2. Body-centered coordinates in the task of drawing ellipses with prescribed orientation. Experimental Brain Research 95:343–48. [FL]Google Scholar
Gurfinkel, V. S., Lipshits, M. I. & Popov, K. E. (1981) Stabilization of body position as the main task of postural regulation. Fiziologya Cheloveka 7:104–8. [FL]Google ScholarPubMed
Gutman, A. (1994) Gelfand-Tsetlin principle of minimal afferentation and bistability of dendrites. International Journal of Neural Systems 5:83–86. [rAGF]Google Scholar
Gutman, A. M. (1991) Bistability of dendrites. International Journal of Neural Systems 1:291–304. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Gutman, S. R & Gottlieb, G. L. (1992) Basic functions of variability of simple pre-planned movements. Biological Cybernetics 68:63–73. [SRG]Google Scholar
Haggard, P., Hutchinson, K. & Stein, J. F. (1995) Patterns of coordinated multi-joint movement. Submitted. [PH]Google Scholar
Haken, H. (1977) Synergetics: An introduction: Nonequilibrium phase transitions and self-organizations in physics, chemistry, and biology. Springer-Verlag. [REAvE]Google Scholar
Haken, H. (1990) Synergetics as a tool for the conceptualization and mathematization of cognition and behaviour: How far can we go? In: Synergetics of cognition, eds. Haken, H.Stadeler, M.. Springer-Verlag. [RI]Google Scholar
Hale, J. & Kocak, H. (1991) Dynamics and bifurcations. Springer-Verlag. [TGF]Google Scholar
Hasan, Z. (1986) Optimized movement trajectories and joint stiffness in unperturbed, inertially loaded movements. Biological Cybernetics 53:373–82. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Hasan, Z. (1991) Biomechanics and the study of multijoint movements. In: Motor control: Concepts and issues, ed. Humphrey, D. R. & Freund, H.-J.. Wiley. [arAGF, UW]Google Scholar
Hasan, Z. (1992) Is stiffness the mainspring of posture and movement? Behavioral and Brain Sciences 15:756–58. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Hasan, Z. & Karst, G. M. (1989) Muscle activity for initiation of planar two-joint arm movements in different directions. Experimental Brain Research 76:651–55. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Hatsopoulos, N. G. (1994) Is a virtual trajectory necessary in reaching movements? Biological Cybernetics 70:541–51. [MD]Google Scholar
Hatsopoulos, N. G. & Warren, W. H. (in press). Resonance tuning in rhythmic arm movements. Journal of Motor Behavior. [NGH]Google Scholar
Hatsopoulos, N. G., Warren, W. H. & Sanes, J. N. (1992) A neural pattern generator that tunes into the physical dynamics of the limb system. International Joint Conference on Neural Networks (Baltimore, MD) 1:104–9. [NGH]Google Scholar
Hellgren, J. & Kellerth, J.-O. (1989) A physiological study of the monosynaptic reflex responses of cat spinal a-motoneurons after partial lumbosacral deafferentation. Brain Research 488:149–62. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Henneman, E. (1981) Recruitment of motoneurons: The size principle. In: Progress in clinical neurophysiology: vol. 9. Motor unit types, recruitment and plasticity in health and disease, ed. Desmedt, J. E.. Karger. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Henneman, E., Somjen, G. & Carpenter, D. O. (1965) Excitability and inhibitability of motoneurones of different sizes. Journal of Neurophysiology 28:599–620. [MLL]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hirsch, M. W. & Smale, S. (1974) Differential equations, dynamical systems, and linear algebra. Academic Press. [TGF]Google Scholar
Hodgson, A. J. (1994) Inferring central motor plans from attractor trajectory measurements. PhD dissertation. Division of Health Sciences and Technology, Harvard University—Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA. [AH]Google Scholar
Hoff, B. & Arbib, M. A. (1992) A model of the effects of speed, accuracy, and perturbation on visually guided reaching. Experimental Brain Research 22:285–306. [MD]Google Scholar
Hoffer, J. A. & Andreassen, S. (1981) Regulation of soleus muscle stiffness and viscosity in premammillary cats: Mechanical and reflex components. Journal of Neurophysiology 45:267–85. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Hoffman, D. S. & Strick, P. L. (1993) Step-tracking movements of the wrist: 3. Influence of changes in load on patterns of muscle activity. Journal of Neuroscience 13:5212–27. [DMC]Google Scholar
Hogan, N. (1984) An organizing principle for a class of voluntary movements. Journal of Neuroscience 4:2745–54. [arAGF, AH, PH]Google Scholar
Hogan, N. (1985) The mechanics of multi-joint posture and movement control. Biological Cybernetics 52:315–31. [AH]Google Scholar
Hogan, N. & Flash, T. (1987) Moving gracefully: Quantitative theories of motor coordination. Trends in Neurosdence 10:170–74. [aAGF, JRF]Google Scholar
Hogan, N. & Mussa-Ivaldi, F. (1992) Muscle behavior may solve motor coordination problems. In: Eye-hand sensori-motor system, ed. Berthoz, A., Graaf, W. & Vidal, P.. Oxford University Press. [MD]Google Scholar
Hollerbach, J. M. (1988) Fundamentals of motor behavior. In: Invitation to cognitive science, ed. Osherson, D.. MIT Press. [MD]Google Scholar
Hollerbach, J. M. & Atkeson, C. G. (1987) Deducing planning variables from experimental arm trajectories: Pitfalls and possibilities. Biological Cybernetics 56:279–92. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Holt, K. G., Hamill, J. & Andres, R. O. (1990) The force-driven harmonic oscillator as a model for human locomotion. Human Movement Science 9:55–68. [NGH]Google Scholar
Hore, J., MeCloskey, D. I. & Taylor, J. L. (1990) Task-dependent changes in gain of the reflex response to imperceptible perturbations of joint position in man. Journal of Physiology (London) 429:309–21. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Hore, J., Wild, B. & Diener, H. (1991) Cerebellar dysmetria at the elbow, wrist and fingers. Journal of Neurophysiology 65:563–71. [DMC]Google Scholar
Houk, J. C. & Rymer, W. Z. (1981) Neural control of muscle length and tension.In: Handbook of physiology: section 1. The nervous system: vol. 2. Motor control, ed. Brookhart, J. M., Mountcastle, V. B., Brooks, V. B. & Geiger, S. R.. American Physiological Society. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Hounsgaard, J., Hultborn, H., Jespersen, B. & Kiehn, O. (1988) Bistability of a-motoneurones in the decerebrate cat and in the acute spinal cat after intravenous 5-hydroxytryptophan. Journal of Physiology (London) 405:345–67. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Hugon, M., Massion, J. & Wiesendanger, M. (1982) Anticipatory postural changes induced by active unloading and comparison with passive unloading in man. Pflügers Archiv 393:292–96. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Hulliger, M., Nordh, E. & Vallbo, A. B. (1982) The absence of position response in spindle afferent units from human finger muscles during accurate position holding. Journal of Physiology (London) 322:167–79. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Hultborn, H., Meunier, S., Morin, C. & Pierrot-Deseilligny, E. (1987) Assessing changes in presynaptic inhibition of la fibres: A study in man and the cat. Journal of Physiology (London) 389:729–56. [GEL]Google Scholar
Humphrey, D. R. & Reed, D. J. (1983) Separate cortical systems for control of joint movement and joint stiffness: Reciprocal activation and coactivation of antagonist muscles. Advances in Neurology 39:347–72. [aAGF]Google ScholarPubMed
Illert, M., Jankowska, E., Lundberg, A. & Odutola, A. (1981) Integration in descending motor pathways controlling the forelimb in the cat. Experimental Brain Research 42:269–81. [GEL]Google Scholar
Ingvaldsen, R. P. & Whiting, H. T. A. (1993) The two faces of motor learning. In: Learning motor skills, ed. Doorenbosch, C. A. M.. Enschede, Netherlands: Copy 2000. [RI]Google Scholar
Ingvaldsen, R. P. & Whiting, H. T. A. (1995) Modern views on skill learning are not representative. Submitted. [RI]Google Scholar
Jackson, E. A. (1989) Perspectives of nonlinear dynamics. Cambridge University Press. [TGF]Google Scholar
Jacobs, O. L. R. (1993) Introduction to control theory. Oxford University Press. [SRG]Google Scholar
Jami, L. (1992) Golgi tendon organs in mammalian skeletal muscle: Functional properties and central actions. Physiological Reviews 72:623–66. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Jankowska, E. (1992) Interneuronal relay in spinal pathways from proprioceptors. Progress in Neurobiology 38:335–78. [aAGF, UW]Google Scholar
Jankowska, E., Lundberg, A. & Stuart, D. (1973) Propriospinal control of last order intemeurones of spinal relex pathways in the cat. Brain Research 53:227–31. [GEL]Google Scholar
Jeannerod, M. (1988) The neural and behavioral organization of goal-directed arm movements. Clarendon Press. [arAGF, MD, FL]Google Scholar
Jeannerod, M. (1994) The representing brain: Neural correlates of motor intention and imagery. Behavioral and Brain Science 17(2):187–202. [MB]Google Scholar
Jongen, H. A. H., Denier van der Gon, J. J. & Gielen, C. C. A. M. (1989) Inhomogeneous activation of motoneuron pools as revealed by co-contraction of antagonistic human arm muscles. Experimental Brain Research 75:555–62. [aAGF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jordan, L. M., Pratt, C. A. & Menzies, J. A. (1979) Locomotion evoked by brainstem stimulation: Occurrence without phasic segmental afferent input. Brain Research 177:204–7. [TMH]Google Scholar
Kaas, J. (1991) Plasticity of sensory and motor maps in adult mammals. Annual Review of Neuroscience 14:137–67. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Kalaska, J. F. (1991) Reaching movements to visual targets: Neuronal representations of sensori-motor transformations. Seminars in the Neurosciences 3:67–80. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Kalaska, J. F. & Crammond, D. J. (1992) Cerebral cortical mechanisms of reaching movements. Science 255:1517–23. [arAGF, KHP, SS]Google Scholar
Kalaska, J. F. & Drew, T. (1993) Motor cortex and visuomotor behavior. Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews 21:397–436. [AEP]Google Scholar
Kay, B. A., Saltzman, E. L. & Kelso, J. A. S. (1991) Steady-state and perturbed rhythmical movements: A dynamical analysis. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 17:183–97. [aAGF, NGH]Google Scholar
Kearney, R. E. & Hunter, I. W. (1983) System identification of human triceps surae stretch reflex dynamics. Experimental Brain Research 51:117–27 [AH]Google Scholar
Kearney, R. E. & Hunter, I. W. (1984) System identification of human stretch reflex dynamics: Tibialis anterior. Experimental Brain Research 56:40–49. [AH]Google Scholar
Kelso, J. A. S. (1994a) Elementary coordination dynamics. In: Interlimb coordination: Neural, dynamical and cognitive constraints, ed. Swinnen, S. P., Heuer, H., Massion, J. & Caesar, P.. Academic Press. [DS]Google Scholar
Kearney, R. E. & Hunter, I. W. (1994b) The informational character of self-organized coordination dynamics. Human Movement Science 3:393–414. [RI, PM]Google Scholar
Kelso, J. A. S. & Shöner, G. (1988) Self-organization of coordinative movement patterns. Human Movement Science 7:27–46. [MLL]Google Scholar
Kelso, J. A. S., DelColle, J. D. & Schöner, G. (1990) Action-perception as a pattern formation process. In: Attention and performance, ed. Jeannerod, M.. Erlbaum. [DS]Google Scholar
Ker, R. F., Alexander, R. McN. & Bennett, M. B. (1988) Why are mammalian tendons so thick? Journal of Zoology 216:309–24. [RMcNA]Google Scholar
Kernell, D. & Hultborn, H. (1990) Synaptic effects on recruitment gain: A mechanism of importance for the input-output relations of motoneurone pools? Brain Research 507:176–79. [aAGF]Google Scholar
King, J. S. & Pribam, K. H. (in press) Scale in concious experience: Is the brain too important to be left to specialists to study? Erlbaum. [KHP]Google Scholar
Kostyukov, A. I. & Cherkassky, V. L. (1992) Movement-dependent after-effects in the firing of the spindle endings from the de-efferented muscles of the cat hindlimb. Neuroscience 46:989–99. [UW]Google Scholar
Kriellaars, D. J., Brownstone, R. M., Noga, B. R. & Jordan, L. M. (1994) Mechanical entrainment of fictive locomotion in the decerebrate cat. Journal of Neurophysiology 7:2074–86. [TMH]Google Scholar
Kugler, P. N., Kelso, J. A. S. & Turvey, M. T. (1980) On the concept of coordinative structures as dissipative structures: 1. Theoretical lines of convergence. In: Tutorials in motor behavior, ed. Stelmach, G. E. & Requin, J.. North Holland. [DS]Google Scholar
Kugler, P. N. & Turvey, M. T. (1987) Information, natural law, and the self-assembly of rhythmic movement. Erlbaum. [NGH]Google Scholar
Kugler, P. N. & Turvey, M. T. (1988) Self-organization, (low fields, and information. Human Movement Science 7:97–129. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Kuperstein, M. (1988) Neural model of adaptive hand-eye coordination for single postures. Science 239:1308–11. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Laboissière, R., Ostry, D. J. & Feldman, A. G. (in press) The control of multi-muscle systems: Human jaw and hyoid movements. Journal of Neurophysiology. [DJO]Google Scholar
Lackner, J. R. & DiZio, P. (1992) Gravitoinertial force level affects the appreciation of limb position during muscle vibration. Brain Research 592:175–80. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Lackner, J. R. & DiZio, P. (1993) Factors contributing to initial reaching errors and adaptation to Coriolis force perturbations. Society for Neurosdence Abstracts 19:1595. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Lackner, J. R. & DiZio, P. (1994) Rapid adaptation to Coriolis force perturbations of arm trajectory. Journal of Neurophysiology. 72:1–15. [rAGF]Google Scholar
Lacquaniti, F. (1989) Central representations of human limb movement as revealed by studies of drawing and handwriting. Trends in Neurosdence 12:287–91. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Lacquaniti, F. (1992) Automatic control of limb movement and posture. Current Opinion in Neurobiology 2:807–14. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Lacquaniti, F., Borghese, N. A. & Carrozzo, M. (1991) Transient reversal of the stretch reflex in human arm muscles. Journal of Neurophysiology 66:939–54. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Lacquaniti, F. & Soechting, J. F. (1986) Responses of mono- and bi-articular muscles to load-perturbations of the human arm. Experimental Brain Research 65:135–44. [JBJS]Google Scholar
Lan, N. & Crago, P. E. (1992) Equilibrium-point hypothesis, minimum effort control strategy and the triphasic muscle activation pattern. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 15:769–71. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Latash, M. L. (1992) Are we able to preserve a motor command in the changing environment? Behavioral and Brain Sciences 15:771–73. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Latash, M. L. (1993) Are we able to preserve a motor commond in the changing environment? Behavioral and Brain Sciences 15:771–73 [rAGF]Google Scholar
Latash, M. L. (1994) Control of fast elbow movement: A study of electromyographic patterns during movements against unexpectedly decreased inertial load. Experimental Brain Research 98:145–52. [GLG, MLL]Google Scholar
Latash, M. L. & Corcos, D. M. (1991) Kinematic and electromyographic characteristics of single-joint movements of individuals with Down syndrome. American Journal of Mental Retardation 96:189–201. [DMC]Google Scholar
Latash, M. L. & Goodman, S. R. (1993) Variability of fast single joint movements and the equilibrium point hypothesis. In: Variability in motor control, ed. Newell, K. & Corcos, D.. Urbana, IL: Human Kinetics. [SRG]Google Scholar
Latash, M. L. & Goodman, S. R. (1994) An equilibrium-point model of electromyographic patterns during single-joint movements based on experimentally reconstructed control signals. Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology 4:230–41. [GLG, MLL]Google Scholar
Latash, M. L. & Gottlieb, G. K. (1991a) Reconstruction of shifting elbow joint characteristics during fast and slow movements. Neuroscience 47:357–65. [aAGF, JBJS]Google Scholar
Latash, M. L. & Gottlieb, G. K. (1991b) Reconstruction of joint compliant characteristics during fast and slow movements. Neuroscience 43:697–712. [DMC, SRC, MLL]Google Scholar
Latash, M. L. & Gottlieb, G. K. (1991c) An equilibrium-point model for fast single-joint movement: 2. Similarity of single-joint isometric and isotonic descending commands. Journal of Motor Behavior 23:179–91. [MLL]Google Scholar
Lee, R. G., Lucier, G. E., Mustard, B. E. & White, D. G. (1986) Modification of motor output to compensate for unanticipated load conditons during rapid voluntary movements. Canadian Journal of Neurological Sciences 13:97–102. [MLL]Google Scholar
Lee, R. G. & Stein, R. B. (1981) Resetting of tremor by mechanical perturbations: A comparison of essential tremor and Parkinsonian tremor. Annals of Neurology 10:523–31. [REAvE]Google Scholar
Lestienne, F. G. & Gurfinkel, V. S. (1988) Postural activity in weightlessness: A dual process underlying adaptation to an unusual environment. Trends in Neuroscience 11:359–63. [FL]Google Scholar
Lestienne, F. G., Gurfinkel, V. S., Levik, Yu. S. & Perrin, Ph. (1994) Posture et gestuelle en microgravité: Un outil d'investigation pour la physiologie sensori-motrice. Médicine Aéronautique et Spatiale, XXXVI, 130:92–98. [FL]Google Scholar
Levin, M. F., Feldman, A. G., Milner, T. E. & Lamarre, Y. (1992) Reciprocal and coactivation commands for fast wrist movements. Experimental Brain Research 89:669–77. [arAGF, GLG]Google Scholar
Loeb, G. E. (1985) Motoneurone task groups: Coping with kinematic heterogeneity. Journal of Experimental Biology 115:137–46. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Loeb, G. E. (1989) Strategies for the control of studies of voluntary movements with one mechanical degree of freedom. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 12:227. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Loeb, G. E., Giszter, S. F., Borghesani, P. & Bizzi, E. (1993) Effects of dorsal root cut on forces evoked by spinal inicrostimulation in the spinalized frog. Journal of Somatosensory and Motor Research 10(1):81–95. [SG]Google Scholar
Lundberg, A. (1975) Control of spinal mechanisms from the brain. In: The nervous system, vol. 2., ed. Tower, D. B.. Raven. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Lundberg, A. (1981) Half-centres revisited. In: Advances in physiological sciences: vol. 1. Regulatory functions of the CNS: Motion and organization principles, ed. Szentagothai, J., Palkovits, M. & Hamori, J.. Budapest: Pergamon/Akademiai Kiado. [TM1I]Google Scholar
Maioli, C. & Lacquaniti, F. (1988) Determinants of postural control in cats: A biomechanical study. In: Posture and gait: Development, adaptation and modulation, ed. Amblard, B., Berthoz, A. & Clarac, F.. Elsevier. [FL, rAGF]Google Scholar
Marteniuk, R. G., MacKenzie, C. L., Jeannerod, M., Athens, S. & Dugas, C. (1987) Constraints on human arm movement trajectories. Canadian Journal of Psychology 41:365–78. [CCP]Google Scholar
Masino, T. & Knudsen, E. I. (1990) Horizontal and vertical components of head movement are controlled by distinct neural circuits in the barn owl. Nature 345:434–37. [SG]Google Scholar
Matthews, P. B. C. (1959) The dependence of tension upon extension in the stretch reflex of the soleus muscle of the decerebrate cat. Journal of Physiology (London) 147:521–46. [aAGF, UW]Google Scholar
Matthews, P. B. C. (1972) Mamtnalian muscle receptors and their central actions. Edward Arnold. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Matthews, P. B. C. (1981) Muscle spindles: Their messages and their fusimotor supply. In: Handbook of physiology: 1. The nervous system. American Physiological Society. [aAGF]Google Scholar
May, R. (1976) Simple mathematical models with very complicated dynamics. Nature 78:459–67. [REAvE]Google Scholar
McCloskey, D. I. & Prochazka, A. (1994) The role of sensory information in the guidance of voluntary movement: Reflections on a symposium held at the 22nd annual meeting of the Society for Neuroscience. Somatosensory and Motor Research 11:69–76. [rAGF]Google Scholar
McCloskey, D. J. (1978) Kinaesthetic sensibility. Physiological Reviews 58:763–820. [aAGF]Google Scholar
McCrea, D. A. (1986) Spinal cord circuitry and motor reflexes. Exercise and Sport Science Reviews 14:105–41. [TRN]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McCrea, D. A. (1992) Can sense be made of spinal intemeuron circuits? Behavioral and Brain Sciences 15:633–43. [aAGF]Google Scholar
McCurdy, M. L. & Hamm, T. M. (1993) Coherence spectra demonstrate synchronization between motor pools of hip and ankle extensors of the cat during fictive locomotion. Society for Neuroscience Abstracts 19:540. [TMH]Google Scholar
McDonald, P. V., Bloomberg, J. J. & Layne, C. S. (1994) Lower limb coordination during treadmill locomotion following space flight. Paper presented to the 19th Annual Technical Symposium of The American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (Houston Section), University of Houston—Clear Lake. [PVMcD]Google Scholar
McDonald, P. V., Layne, C. S., Bloomberg, J. J., Merkle, L., Jones, G. & Pruett, C. J. (1994) The impact of space flight adaptation on postflight locomotion. In: Society for Neuroscience Annual Meeting (Miami Beach, FL). Society for Neuroscience.Google Scholar
McIntyre, J. & Bizzi, E. (1993) Servo models for the biological control of movement. Journal of Motor Behavior 25:193–202. [aAGF]Google Scholar
MeIzack, R. (1989) Phantom limbs, the self and the brain: The D. O. Hebb memorial lecture. Canadian Psychology 30:1–16. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Merton, P. A. (1953) Speculations on the servo control of movement. In: The spinal cord, ed. Wolstenholme, G. E. W.. Churchill. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Merzenich, M. M., Recanzone, C., Jenkins, W. M., Allard, T. T. & Nudo, R. J. (1988) Cortical representational plasticity. In: Neurobiology of neocortex, ed. Rakic, P. & Singer, W.. Wiley. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Meyer, D. E., Smith, J. E. K., Kornblum, S., Abrams, R. A. & Wright, C. E. (1990) Speed-accuracy tradeoffs in aimed movements: Toward a theory of rapid voluntary action. In Attention and performance, vol. 13: Motor rejyresentation and control, ed. Jeannerod, M.. Erlbaum. [CEW]Google Scholar
Meyer, D. E., Smith, J. E. K. & Wright, C. E. (1982) Models for the speed and accuracy of aimed movements. Psychological Reviews 89:449–82. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Michaels, C. F. & Beek, P. J. (1994) The state of ecological psychology. Proceedings of the Third European Conference on Ecological Psychology (Ruhr-University, Germany). [RI]Google Scholar
Miller, L. E., Gielen, C. C. A. M., Theeuwen, M. & Doorenbosch, D. (1992) The activation of mono- and biarticular muscles in multijoint movements. In: Control of arm movement in space: Neurophysiological and computational approaches, ed. Caminiti, R., Johnson, P. B. & Burnod, Y.. Springer-Verlag. [aAGF, CCAMG]Google Scholar
Milner, T. E. & Ijaz, M. (1990) The effect of accuracy constraints on threedimensional movement kinematics. Neuroscience 35:365–74. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Milner-Brown, H. S. & Stein, R. B. (1975) The relation between the surface electromyogram and muscular tension. Journal of Physiology (London) 246:259–62. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Mochon, S. & McMahon, T. A. (1980) Ballistic walking. Journal of Biomechanics 13:49–57. [AEP]Google Scholar
Morasso, P. (1981) Spatial control of arm movements. Experimental Brain Research 42:223–27. [MD, SRC, PM]Google Scholar
Morasso, P. & Sanguineti, V. (1994) Self-organizing body-schema for motor planning. Journal of Motor Behavior 26:131–48. [PM]Google Scholar
Morasso, P., Sanguineti, V. & Spada, G. (1994) Representation of space and time in motor control. In: Integration of elementary functions into complex behavior, ed. Dean, J., Cruse, H. & Ritter, H.. [report no. 1 of the research group Prerational Intelligence (1993/94)]. Center for Interdisciplinary Research, University of Bielefeld, Germany. [JD]Google Scholar
Motter, B. C., Steinmerz, M. A., Duffy, C. J. & Mountcastle, V. B. (1987) Functional properties of parietal visual neurons: Mechanisms of directionality along a single axis. Journal of Neuroscience 7:154–76. [K11P]Google Scholar
Munoz, D. P., Pélisson, D. & Guitton, D. (1991) Movement of neural activity on the superior colliculus motor map during gaze shifts. Science 51:1358–60. [aAGF, MD]Google Scholar
Mussa-Ivaldi, F. A. (1992) From basis functions to basis fields: Using vector primitives to capture vector patterns. Biololgical Cybernetics 67:479–89. [SG]Google Scholar
Mussa-Ivaldi, F. A. & Giszter, S. F. (1992) Vector field approximation: A computational paradigm for motor control and learning. Biological Cybernetics 67:491–500. [SG]Google Scholar
Mussa-Ivaldi, F. A., Giszter, S. F. & Bizzi, E. (1994) Linear combinations of primitives in vertebrate motor control. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 91(16):7534–38. [SG]Google Scholar
Mussa-Ivaldi, F. A. & Hogan, N. (1991) Integrable solutions of kinematic redundancy via impedance control. Robotic Research 10:481–91. [SRG]Google Scholar
Mussa-Ivaldi, F. A., Morasso, P. & Zaccaria, R. (1988) Kinematic networks: A distributed model for representing and regularizing motor redundancy. Biological Cybernetics 60:1–16. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Mustard, B. E. & Lee, R. G. (1987) Relationship between EMC patterns and kinematic properties for flexion movements at the human wrist. Experimental Brain Research 66:247–56. [aAGF, DMC]Google Scholar
Myklebust, B. M. & Gottlieb, G. L. (1993) Development of the stretch reflex in the newborn: Reciprocal excitation and reflex irradiation. Child Development 64:1036–45. [ET]Google Scholar
Neilson, P. D. & Neilson, M. D. (1992) Adaptive model theory. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 15:782–83. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Nelson, W. L. (1983) Physical principles for economies of skilled movements. Biological Cybernetics 46:135–47. [JD]Google Scholar
Newman, D. J. & Alexander, H. L. (1993) Human locomotion and workload for simulated lunar and martian environments. Acta Astronautica 29:613–20. [PVMcD]Google Scholar
Nichols, T. R. (1989) The organization of heterogenic reflexes among muscles crossing the ankle joint in the decerebrate cat. Journal of Physiology (London) 410:463–77. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Nichols, T. R. (1992) Stiffness regulation revisited. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 15:783–84. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Nichols, T. R. (1995) A biomechanical perspective on spinal mechanisms of coordinated muscular action: An architecture principle. Ada Anatomica 151:1–13. [TRN]Google Scholar
Nichols, T. R. & Houk, J. C. (1976) Improvement in linearity and regulation of stiffness that results from actions of the stretch reflex. Journal of Neurophysiology 39:119–42. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Nichols, T. R. & Steeves, J. D. (1986) Resetting of resultant stiffness in ankle flexor and extensor muscles in the decerebrate cat. Experimental Brain Research 62:401–10. [aAGF, UW]Google Scholar
Nicogossian, A. E. (1989). Overall physiological response to space flight. In: Space physiology and medicine, ed. Nicogossian, A. E., Huntoon, C. L. & Pool, S. L.. Lea & Febiger. [PVMcD]Google Scholar
Orlovsky, G. N. & Shik, M. L. (1976) Control of locomotion: Neurophysiological analysts of the cat locomotor system. International Review of Physiology 10:281–318. [arAGF]Google Scholar
Ostry, D. J., Feldman, A. G. & Flanagan, R. F. (1991) Kinematics and control of frog hindlimb movements. Journal of Neurophysiology 65:547–62. [SG]Google Scholar
Ostry, D. J., Laboissiére, R. & Feldman, A. G. (1994) A model of jaw and hyoid motion based on the equilibrium point hypothesis. Society for Neurosdence Abstracts 20:854. [DJO]Google Scholar
Ostry, D. J. & Munhall, K. G. (1994) Control of jaw orientation and position in mastication and speech. Journal of Neurophysiology 71:1528–45. [DJO]Google Scholar
Pagano, C. C. & Turvey, M. T. (in press) The inertia tensor as a basis for the perception of limb orientation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance. [CCP]Google Scholar
Pailhous, J. & Bonnard, M. (1994) Jeannerod's representing brain: Image or illusion? Behavioral and Brain Science 17(2):215–16. [MB]Google Scholar
Paillard, J. (1991) Brain and space. Oxford University Press. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Partridge, L. D. (1966) Signal handling characteristics of load-moving skeletal muscle. American Journal of Physiology 210:853–63. [LDP]Google Scholar
Partridge, L. D. (1967) Intrinsic feedback factors producing inertial compensation in muscle. Biophysics Journal 7:853–63. [LDP]Google Scholar
Partridge, L. D. (1972) Interrelationships studied in a semi-biological “reflex.” American Journal of Physiology 223:144–58. [LDP]Google Scholar
Partridge, L. D. (1979) Muscle properties: A problem for the motor controller physiologist. In: Posture and Movement, ed. Talbott, R. E. & Humphrey, D. R.. Raven. [LDP]Google Scholar
Partridge, L. D. (1982) How was movement controlled before Newton? Behavioral and Brain Sciences 5:561. [UW]Google Scholar
Partridge, L. D. (1983) Neural control drives a muscle spring: A persisting yet limited motor theory. Experimental Brain Research [Suppl.] 7:280–90. [LDP]Google Scholar
Partridge, L. D. & Benton, L. A. (1981) Muscle the motor. In: Handbook of physiology: The nervous system, ed. Brooks, V. B.. American Physiological Society. [UW]Google Scholar
Patla, A. E., Prentice, S. D., Armand, M. & Huissoon, J. P. (1994) The role of effector system dynamics on the control of limb trajectory over obstacles during locomotion: Empirical and modelling approaches. In: Vestibular and neural front [12th International Symposium on Posture and Gait], ed. Taguchi, K., Igarashi, M. & Mori, S.. Elsevier. [AEP]Google Scholar
Patla, A. E. & Rietdyk, S. (1993) Visual control of limb trajectory over obstacles during locomotion: Effect of obstacle height and width. Gait and Posture 1(1):45–60. [AEP]Google Scholar
Patla, A. E., Rietdyk, S., Martin, C. & Prentice, S. (in press) Locomotor patterns of the leading and trailing limb while going over solid and fragile obstacles: Some insights into the role of vision during locomotion. Journal of Motor Behavior. [AEP]Google Scholar
Patla, A. E., Rietdyk, S., Prentice, S., Unger-Peters, G. & Gobbi, L. (1993) Understanding the roles of sensory inputs in the control of limb trajectory over obstacles during locomotion. Society for Neuroscience Abstracts 19:148. [AEP]Google Scholar
Pearson, K. G. (1985) Are diere central pattern generators for walking and flight in insects? In: Feedback and neural control in invertebrates and vertebrates, ed. Barnes, W J. P. & Gladden, M. H.. Croom Helm. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Pearson, K. G. & Collins, D. F. (1993) Reversal of the influence of group Ib aflerents from plantaris on activity in medial gastrocnemius muscle during locomotor activity. Journal of Neurophysiology 70:1009–17. [TMH]Google Scholar
Pélisson, D., Prablanc, C., Goodale, M. A. & Jeannerod, M. (1986) Visual control of reaching movements without vision of the limb: 2. Evidence of fast unconscious processes correcting the trajectory of the hand to the final position of a double-step stimulus. Experimental Brain Research 62:303– 11. [aAGF, MD]Google Scholar
Pellionisz, A. (1985) Tensor network theory of the metaorganization of functional geometries in the central nervous system. Neuroscience 16:245–73. [aAGF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pellionisz, A. & Llinás, R. (1982) Space-time representation in the brain. The cerebellum as a predictive space-time metric tensor. Neuroscience 7:2949–70. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Pennycuick, C. J. (1975) On the running of the gnu (Connochaetes taurinus) and other animals. Journal of Experimental Biology 63:775–99. [NGH]Google Scholar
Piaget, J. (1963) The origin of intelligence in children. Norton. [PM]Google Scholar
Polit, A. & Bizzi, E. (1979) Characteristics of motor programs underlying arm movements in monkeys. Journal of Neurophysiology 42:183–94. [MD]Google Scholar
Porter, R. & Lemon, R. N. (1993) Corticospinal function and voluntary movement. Clarendon Press. [SS]Google Scholar
Prablanc, C. & Martin, O. (1992) Automatic control during hand reaching at undetected two-dimensional target displacements. Journal of Neurophysiology 67:455–69. [MD]Google Scholar
Pratt, C. A., Chanaud, C. M. & Loeb, G. E. (1991) Functional complex muscles of the cat hindlimb: 4. Intramuscular distribution of movement command signals and cutaneous reflexes in broad, bifunctional thigh muscles. Experimental Brain Research 85:56–71. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Pribram, K. H. (1971) Languages of the brain: Experimental paradoxes and prindples in neuropsychology. Prentice-Hall. [KHP]Google Scholar
Pribram, K. H. (1991) Brain and perception: Holonomy and structure in figural processing. Erlbaum. [KHP]Google Scholar
Pribam, K. H., Sharafat, A. & Bn, G. J. (1984) Frequency encoding in motor systems. In: Human motor actions—Bernstein reassessed, ed. Whiting, H. T. A.. Elsevier. [KHP]Google Scholar
Prochazka, A. (1989) Sensorimotor gain control: A basic strategy of motor systems? Progress in Neurobiology 33:281–307. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Prochazka, A., Hulliger, M., Zangger, P. & Appenteng, K. (1985) “Fusimotor set”: New evidence for a-independent control of g-motoneurones during movements in the awake cat. Brain Research 339:136–40. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Rack, P. M. H. & Ross, H. F. (1984) The tendon of flexor pollicis longus; its effects on the muscular control of force and position at the human thumb. Journal of Physiology 351:99–110. [RMcNA]Google Scholar
Ramos, C. F. & Stark, L. W. (1990) Simulation experiments can shed light on the functional aspects of postural adjustments related to voluntary movements. In: Multiple muscle systems: Biomechanics and movement organization, ed. Winters, J. M. & Woo, S. L.-Y.. Springer-Verlag. [AA]Google Scholar
Reeke, G. N., Finkel, L. H., Sporns, O. & Edelman, G. M. (1990) Synthetic neural modeling: A multilevel approach to the analysis of brain complexity. In: Signal and senses: Local and global order in perceptual maps, ed. Edelman, G., Gall, W. E. & Cowan, W. M.. Wiley. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Reichert, H. & Rowell, C. H. F. (1986) Neuronal circuits controlling flight in the locust: How sensory information is processed for motor control. Trends in Neuroscience 9:281–83. [JD]Google Scholar
Reschke, M. F., Bloomberg, J. J., Paloski, W. H., Harm, D. L. & Parker, D. E. (1994) Neurophysiologic aspects: Sensory and sensory-motor function. In: Space physiology and medicine, ed. Nicogossian, A. E., Huntoon, C. L. & Pool, S. L.. Lea & Febiger. [PVMcD]Google Scholar
Richmond, F. J. R. & Loeb, G. E. (1992) Electromyographic studies of neck muscles in the intact cat: 2. Reflexes evoked by muscle nerve stimulation. Experimental Brain Research 88:59–66. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Roberts, T. D. M. (1963) Rhythmic excitation of a stretch reflex, revealing (a) hysteresis and (b) a difference between the responses to pulling and to stretching. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Physiology 48:328–45. [UW]Google Scholar
Robinson, D. (1975) Oculomotor control signals. In: Baste mechanisms of ocular motility and their clinical implications, ed. Lennerstrand, G. & Bach-y-Rita, P.. Pergamon. [MD]Google Scholar
Robinson, D. A. (1989) Integrating with neurons. Annual Review of Neuroscience 12:33–45. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Rock, I. & Smith, D. (1986). The opto-motor response and induced motion of the self. Perception 15:497–502. [MB]Google Scholar
Rosenbaum, D., Engelbrecht, S., Bushe, M. & Loukopoulos, L. (1993) Knowledge model for selecting and producing reaching movements. Journal of Motor Behavior 25:217–27. [M D]Google Scholar
Rossignol, S., Lund, J. & Drew, T. (1988) The role of sensory inputs in regulating patterns of rhythmical movements in higher vertebrates. In: Neural control of rhythmic movements in vertibrates, ed. Cohen, A., Rossignol, S. & Grillner, S.. Wiley. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Saltzman, E. L. & Kelso, J. A. S. (1987) Skilled actions: A task-dynamic approach. Psychological Reviews 94:84–106. [aAGF, BAK, DS]Google Scholar
Sanes, J. N. (1986) Kinematics and end-point control of arm movements are modified by unexpected changes in viscous loading. Journal of Neuroscience 6:3120–27. [DMC]Google Scholar
Sanger, T. D. (1994a) Discovering elementary movement primitives using unsupervised motor learning. Proceedings of Neural Networks for Computing Conference (Snowbird, UT). [SG]Google Scholar
Sanger, T. D. (1994b) Optimal unsupervised motor learning predicts the internal representation of barn owl head movements. In: Advances in Neural Information Processing, vol. 6, ed. Touretzky, D.. Morgan Kaufmann. [SG]Google Scholar
Schaal, S., Sternad, D. & Atkeson, C. G. (in press) One-handed juggling: Dynamical approaches to a rhythmic task. Journal of Motor Behavior. [DS]Google Scholar
Schmidt, R. A., Zelaznik, H. N., Hawkins, B., Frank, J. S. & Quinn, J. T. Jr (1979) Motor output variability: A theory for the accuracy of rapid motor acts. Psychological Reviews 86:415–51. [aAGF, CEW]Google Scholar
Schneider, K., Zemicke, R. F., Ulrich, B. D., Jensen, J. L. & Thelen, E. (1990) Understanding movement control in infants through the analysis of limb interscgniental dynamics. journal of Motor Behavior 22:493–320. [ET]Google Scholar
Scholz, J. P., Kelso, J. A. S. & Schöner, G. (1987) Nonequilibrium phase-transitions in coordinated biological motion: Critical slowing down and switching time. Physics Letters A 123:390–94. [REAvE]Google Scholar
Schomburg, E. D. (1990) Spinal sensorimotor systems and their supraspinal control. Neumscience Research 7:265–340. [GEL]Google Scholar
Schöner, G. (in press) Recent developments and problems in human movement science and their conceptual implications. Ecological Psychology. [ET]Google Scholar
Schöner, G. & Kelso, J. A. S. (1988a) Dynamic pattern generation in behavioral and neural systems. Science 239:1513–20. [REAvE, TCF, MLL]Google Scholar
Schöner, G. & Kelso, J. A. S. (1988b) A synergetic theory of environmentally-specified and learned patterns of movement coordination: 1. Relative phase dynamics. Biological Cybernetics 58:71–80. [DS]Google Scholar
Schöner, G. & Kelso, J. A. S. (1990) A dynamic theory of coordination of discrete movement. Biological Cybernetics 63:257–70. [MLL]Google Scholar
Schöner, G. & Kelso, J. A. S. (1994) From interlimb coordination to trajectory formation: Common dynamic principles. In: Interlimb coordination: Neural, dynamical and cognitive constraints, ed. Swinnen, S. P., Heuer, H., Massion, J. & Caesar, P.. Academic Press. [TGF. DS]Google Scholar
Schöner, G., Jiang, W. Y. & Kelso, J. A. S. (1990) A synergetic theory of quadrupedal gaits and gait transformations. Journal of Theoretical Biology 142:359–91. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Shadmehr, R., Mussa-Ivaldi, F. A. & Bizzi, E. (1993) Postural force fields of the human arm and their role in generating multijoint movements, Journal of Neuroscience 13(1):45–62. [AH]Google Scholar
Shaw, R. & Kineslla-Shaw, J. (1988) Ecological mechanics: A physical geometry for intentional constraints. Human Movement Science 7:155–200. [REAvE]Google Scholar
Sherrington, C. S. (1906/1947) The integrative action of the nervous system. Yale University Press. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Slotine, J.-J. (1994) Stability in adaptation and learning. In: Proceedings of the 3rd international conference on the simulation of adaptive beliavior (from animals to animals 3), ed. Cliff, D., Husbands, P., Meyer, J.-A. & Wilson, S. W.. MIT Press. [SG]Google Scholar
Smeets, J. B. J. (1991) Co-ordination in reflex control of arm movements. Ph.D. thesis, Nederlandse Organisatie Voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek (NWO). [aAGF]Google Scholar
Smeets, J. B. J. (1992) What do fast goal-directed movements teach us about equilibrium-point control? Behavioral and Brain Sciences 15:796–97. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Smeets, J. B. J. & Denier van der Gon, J. J. (1994) An unsupervised neural network model for the development of reflex co-ordination. Biological Cybernetics 70:417–45. [JBJS]Google Scholar
Smeets, J. B. J. & Erkelens, C. J. (1991) Dependence of autogenic and heterogenic stretch reflexes on preload activity in the human arm. Journal of Physiology 440:455–65. [JBJS]Google Scholar
Smeets, J. B. J., Erkelens, C. J. & Denier van der Gon, J. J. (1990) Adjustments of fast goal-directed arm movements in response to an unexpected inertial load. Experimental Brain Research 81:303–12. [GLG, JBJS]Google Scholar
Smith, A. & Denny, M. (1990). High-frequency oscillations as indicators of neural control mechanisms in human respiration, mastication and speech. Journal of Neurophysiology 63:745–58. [TMH ]Google Scholar
Smith, J. C., Betts, B., Edgerton, V. R. & Zernicke, R. F. (1980) Rapid ankle extension during paw shakes: Selective recruitment of fast ankle extensors. Journal of Neurophysiology 43:612–20. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Smolianinov, V. V. (1980) Mathematical models of biological tissues. Moscow: Nauka (in Russian). [aAGF]Google Scholar
Soechting, J. F. (1984) Effect of target size on spatial and temporal characteristics of a pointing movement in man. Experimental Brain Research 54:121–32. [MD, MLL]Google Scholar
Soechting, J. F. & Flanders, M. (1992) Moving in three-dimensional space: Frames of reference, vectors and coordinate systems. Annual Review of Neuroscience 15:167–91. [arAGF, FL]Google Scholar
Soechting, J. F. & Terzuolo, C. A. (1986) An algorithm for the generation of curvilinear wrist motion in an arbitrary plane in three-dimensional space. Neuroscience 19:1393–1405. [aAGF]Google Scholar
St-Onge, N., Qi, H. & Feldman, A. G. (1993) The patterns of control signal underlying elbow joint movements in humans. Neuroscience Letters 164:171–74. [aAGF, DMC, GLG]Google Scholar
States, R. A. (1994). Resolving indeterminacy associated with joint-level motor equivalence in planar aimed arm movements [doctoral dissertation, Columbia University]. Ann Arbor, MI: University Microfilms International. [CEW]Google Scholar
Stein, J. F. (1992) The representation of egocentric space in the posterior parietal cortex. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 15:691–700. [aAGF, PM]Google Scholar
Stein, P. S. G. (1984) Central pattern generators in the spinal cord. In: Handbook of the spinal cord, vol. 2 & 3, ed. Davidoff, R. A.. Dekker. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Stein, R. B. (1982) What muscle variable(s) does the nervous system control in limb movements? Behavioral and Brain Sciences 5:535–77. [aAGF, BAK]Google Scholar
Steinmetz, M. A., Motter, B. C., Duffy, C. J. & Mountcastle, V. B. (1987) Functional properties of parietal visual neurons: Radial organization of directionalities within the visual field. Journal of Neuroscience 7:177–91. [KHP]Google Scholar
Tafforin, C. (1990) Relationships between orientation, movement and posture in weightlessness: Preliminary ethological observations. Acta Astronautica 21:271–80. [PVMcD]Google Scholar
Taub, E., Goldberg, I. A. & Taub, P. (1975) Deafferentation in the monkey: Pointing at a target without visual feedback. Experimental Neurology 46:178–86. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Tax, A. A. M., Denier van der Gon, J. J. & Erkelens, C. J. (1990) Differences in coordination of elbow flexor muscles in force tasks and in movement tasks. Experimental Brain Research 81:567–72. [aAGF, CCAMG]Google Scholar
Tax, A. A. M., Denier van der Gon, J. J., Gielen, C. C. A. M. & Kleyne, M. (1990a) Differences in central control of m. biceps brachii in movement tasks and force tasks. Experimental Brain Research 79:138–42. [CCAMG]Google Scholar
Tax, A. A. M., Denier van der Gon, J. J., Gielen, C. C. A. M. & van den Tempel, C. M. M. (1989) Differences in the activation of m. biceps brachii in the control of slow isotonic movements and isometric contractions. Experimental Brain Research 76:55–63. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Tax, A. A. M. & Gielen, C. C. A. M. (1993) New aspects of human muscle coordination as revealed by motor-unit studies. In: Progress in brain research, vol. 97, ed. Allum, J. H. J., Allum-Mecklenburg, D. J., Harris, F. P. & Probst, R.. Elsevier. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Theeuwen, M., Gielen, C. C. A. M. & Miller, L. E. (in press) The relative activation of muscles during isometric contractions and low-velocity movements against a load. Experimental Brain Research. [CCAMG]Google Scholar
Theeuwen, M., Gielen, C. C. A. M., Miller, L. E. & Doorenbosch, C. (1994) The relation between surface EMG and recruitment thresholds of motor units in human arm muscles during isometric contractions. Experimental Brain Research 98:488–500. [CCAMG]Google Scholar
Thelen, E. (in press) Normal infant stereotypies: A dynamic systems approach. In: Stereotypies: Brain-behavior relationships, ed. Sprague, R. L. & Newell, K.. American Psychological Association. [ET]Google Scholar
Thelen, E., Corbetta, D., Kamm, K., Spencer, J. P., Schneider, K. & Zemicke, R. F. (1993) The transition to reaching: Mapping intention and intrinsic dynamics. Child Development 64:1058–98. [ET]Google Scholar
Thelen, E., Corbetta, D. & Spencer, J. P. (in press) The development of reaching during the first year: The role of movement speed. Journal of Experimental Psychology, Human Perception and Performance. [ET]Google Scholar
Thelen, E. & Fisher, D. M. (1983) The organization of spontaneous leg movements in newborn infants. Journal of Motor Behavior 15:353–77. [ET]Google Scholar
Thelen, E. & Smith, L. B. (1994) A dynamic systems approach to the development of cognition and action. MIT Press. [ET]Google Scholar
Thornton, W. E., Hoffler, C. W. & Rummel, J. A. (1977) Anthropometric changes and fluid shifts. In: Biomedical results from skylab (NASA SP-377), ed. Johnston, R. S. & Dietlein, L. F.. National Aeronautics and Space Administration.Google Scholar
Tsuji, T., Morasso, P., Goto, K. & Ito, K. (in press) Human hand impedance characteristics during maintained posture in multi-joint arm movements. Biological Cybernetics. [PM]Google Scholar
Turvey, M. T. (1990) The challenge of a physical account of action: A personal view. In: The natural-physical approach to movement control, ed. Whiting, H. T. A., Meijer, O. G. & van Wieringen, P. C. W.. Amsterdam: VU University Press. [MLL]Google Scholar
Turvey, M. T. & Schmidt, R. C. (1994) A low-dimensional nonlinear dynamic governing interlimb rhythmic coordination. In: Interlimb coordination: Neural, dynamical and cognitive constraints, ed. Swinnen, S. P., Heuer, H., Massion, J. & Caesar, P.. Academic Press. [DS]Google Scholar
Uno, Y., Kawato, M. & Suzuki, R. (1989) Formation and control of optimal trajectory in human multijoint arm movements: Minimun torque-change model. Biological Cybernetics 61:89–101. [MD]Google Scholar
Vallbo, A. B. (1974) Human muscle spindle discharge during isometric voluntary contractions. Amplitude relations between spindle frequency and torque. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica 90:310–36. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Van der Helm, F. C. T. (1994) A finite element musculoskeletal model of the shoulder mechanism. Journal of Biomechanics 27:551–70. [JMW]Google Scholar
Van Emmerik, R. E. A. (1992) Kinematic adaptation to perturbations as a function of practice in rhythmic drawing movements. Journal of Motor Behavior 24:117–31. [aAGF, REAvE]Google Scholar
Van Ingen Schenau, G. J. (1989) From rotation to translation: Constraints on multi-joint movements and the unique action of bi-articular muscles. Human Movement Sciences 8:865–82. [CCAMG]Google Scholar
Vincken, M. H., Gielen, C. C. A. M. & Denier van der Gon, J. J. (1983) Intrinsic and afferent components in apparent muscle stiffness in man. Neuroscience 9:529–34. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Viviani, P. & Terzuolo, C. A. (1980) Space-time invariance in learned motor skill. In: Tutorial in motor behavior, ed. Stelmach, G. E. & Requin, J.. North Holland. [SRG]Google Scholar
Viviani, P. & Terzuolo, C. A. (1982) Trajectory determines movement dynamics. Neuroscience 7:431–37. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Voloshin, A. S., Wosk, J. & Brull, M. (1981) Force wave transmission through the human locomotor system. Transactions of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers Journal of Biomechanical Engineering 103:48–50. [PVMcD]Google Scholar
Von Hofsten, C. (1991) Structuring of early reaching movements: A longitudinal study. Journal of Motor Behavior 23:280–92. [ET]Google Scholar
Von Hoist, E. & Mittelstaedt, H. (1950) The reafference principle: Interaction between the central nervous system and the periphery. Naturwissenschaften 37:464–76. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Wadell, I., Johansson, H., Sjölander, P., Sojka, P., Djupsjöbacka, M. & Niechaj, A. (1991) Fusimotor reflexes influencing secondary muscle spindle afferents from flexor and extensor muscles in the hind limb of the cat. Journal of Physiology (Paris) 85:223–34. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Wadman, W. J., Denier van der Gon, J. J., Geuze, R. H. & Mol, C. R. (1979) Control of fast goal-directed arm movements. Journal of Human Movement Studies 5:3–17. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Wallace, S. A. (1981) An impulse-timing theory for reciprocal control of muscular activity in rapid, discrete movements. Journal of Motor Behavior 13:144–60. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Wallen, P., Ullen, F., Deliagina, T. G., Orlovsky, G. N. & Grillner, S. (1994) Modulations of the normal locomotor pattern during visually evoked yaw turns in the lamprey. Society for Neuroscience Abstracts 20:1408. [rAGF]Google Scholar
Waters, P. & Strick, P. L. (1981) Influence of “strategy” on muscle activity during ballistic movements. Brain Research 207:189–94. [aAGF, DMC]Google Scholar
Weber, E. (1846) Muskelbewegung. Wagner's Handwîrterbuch der Physologie 3:1–122. [LDP]Google Scholar
Westerga, J. & Gramsbergen, A. (1993) Changes in the electromyogram of two major hindlimb muscles during locomotor development in the rat. Experimental Brain Research 92:479–88. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Whalen, R. (1993) Musculoskeletal adaptation to mechanical forces on earth and in space. The Physiologist 36:S127–S130. [PVMcD]Google Scholar
Whitney, D. E. (1969) Resolved motion rate control of manipulators and human prostheses. IEEE Transactions on Man-Machine Systems v.MMS-10:47–53. [SRG]Google Scholar
Williamson, R. M. & Roberts, B. L. (1986) Sensory and motor interactions during movement in the spinal dogfish. Proceedings of the Royal Society, London, Series B 227:103–19. [NGH]Google Scholar
Wilson, D. M. (1961) The central nervous control of flight in a locust. Journal of Experimental Biology 38:471–90. [NGH]Google Scholar
Windhorst, U.) (1994) Shaping static elbow torque-angle relationships by spinal cord circuits: A theoretical study. Neuroscience 59:713–27. [UW]Google Scholar
Windhorst, U., Boorman, G. & Kirmayer, D. (1994) Renshaw cells and recurrent inhibition: Comparison of responses to cyclic inputs. Neuroscience Abstracts 20:791. [UW]Google Scholar
Windhorst, U., Schmidt, J. & Meyer-Lohman, (1976) Analysis of the dynamic responses of deefferented primary muscle spindle endings to ramp stretch. Pflügers Archiv 306:233–40. [aAGF]Google Scholar
Winfree, A. T. (1980) The geometry of biological time. Springer-Verlag. [REAvE]Google Scholar
Winters, J. M. (1994a) Concepts in neuro-muscular modelling. In: 3-D analysis of human movement, ed. Allard, et al. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. [JMW]Google Scholar
Winters, J. M. (in press) An improved muscle-reflex actuator for use in large-scale neuromusculoskeletal models. Annals of Biomedical Engineering. [JMW]Google Scholar
Winters, J. M. & Mullins, P. A. (1992) Synthesized neural/biomechanical models used for realistic 3-D tasks are more likely to provide insights into human movement strategies. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 15:805–7. [JMW]Google Scholar
Winters, J. M. & Stark, L. (1985) Analysis of fundamental movement patterns through the use of in-depth antagonistic muscle models. IEEE Transactions in Biomedical Engineering, BME-32:826–39. [JMW]Google Scholar
Winters, J. M. & Van der Helm, F. C. T. (1994) A field-based musculoskeletal framework for studying human posture and manipulation in 3D. In: Proceedings of the Symposium on Modeling and Control of Biomedical Systetns (Galveston, TX). International Federation on Automatic Control. [JMW]Google Scholar
Wong, Y. C., Kwan, H. C., MacKay, W. A. & Murphy, J. T. (1978) Spatial organization of precentral cortex in awake primates: 2. Somatosensory inputs. Journal of Physiology 41:1107–19. [SS]Google Scholar
Wu, C.-H., Houk, J. C., Young, K.-Y., Miller, L. E. (1990) Nonlinear damping of limb motion. In: Multiple muscle systems: Biomechanics and movement organization, ed. Winters, J. M. & Woo, S. L.-Y.. Springer-Verlag. [AH]Google Scholar
Zajac, F. E. & Giordon, M. E. (1989) Determining muscle's force and action in multi-articular movement. Exercise and Sports Sciences Reviews 17:187–230. [GEL, SS]Google Scholar
Zajac, F. E. & Winters, J. M. (1990) Modeling musculoskeltal movement systems: Joint and body-segment dynamics, musculotendon actuation, and neuromuscular control. In: Multiple muscle systems: Biomechanics and movement organization, ed. Winters, J. M. & Woo, S. L.-Y.. Springer-Verlag. [JMW]Google Scholar