Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gbm5v Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-27T07:58:17.831Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Can Technological Innovations Improve Private Regulation in the Global Economy?

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

Graeme Auld ,
Benjamin Cashore ,
Cristina Balboa ,
Laura Bozzi  and
Stefan Renckens
Graeme Auld
Affiliation:
Carleton University
Benjamin Cashore
Affiliation:
Yale University
Cristina Balboa
Affiliation:
Baruch College, City University of New York
Laura Bozzi
Affiliation:
Yale University
Stefan Renckens
Affiliation:
Yale University
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Those supplying private regulation in the global economy face two fundamental challenges if they are to ameliorate the problems for which they create these systems: targets must conform to, while demanders must have proof of, regulatory compliance. This paper explores an important area absent from assessments as to whether, when, and how, private regulatory bodies are successful in improving behavior and rewarding compliant firms: the role of technological innovations. Employing an inductive, comparative case study analysis, we offer an analytical framework that distinguishes technological innovations that improve tracking mechanisms from innovations that directly improve on-the-ground performance. We illustrate the utility of the analytical framework through an assessment of technological innovations in shaping “non-state market driven” global certification programs governing forestry, fisheries, coffee, e-waste, and climate.

Keywords

private governanceNSMD governancecertificationprivate authorityregulation
Type
Research Article
Information
Business and Politics , Volume 12 , Issue 3 , October 2010 , pp. 1 - 39
Copyright
Copyright © V.K. Aggarwal 2010 and published under exclusive license to Cambridge University Press 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Agarwal, Ravi and Wankhade, Kishore. 2006. “Hi-Tech Heaps, Forsaken Lives. E-Waste in Delhi.” In Challenging the Chip: Labor Rights and Environmental Justice in the Global Electronics Industry, edited by Smith, Ted, Sonnenfeld, David A. and Naguib Pellow, David. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 234–246.Google Scholar
Akerlof, George. A. 1970. “Market for Lemons: Quality, Uncertainty and Market Mechanism.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 84 (3): 488–500.Google Scholar
Auld, Graeme. 2009. Reversal of Fortune: How Early Choices Can Alter the Logic of Market-Based Authority. Ph.D. dissertation, Yale University, New Haven.Google Scholar
Auld, Graeme. 2010. “Assessing Certification as Governance: Effects and Broader Consequences for Coffee.” Journal of Environment and Development 19 (2): 215–241 Google Scholar
Auld, Graeme, Balboa, Cristina, Bernstein, Steven, and Cashore, Benjamin. 2009. “The Emergence of Non-State Market-Driven (NSMD) Global Environmental Governance: A Cross-Sectoral Assessment.” In Governance for the Environment: New Perspectives, edited by Delmas, Magali A. and Young, Oran R. New York: Cambridge, 183–218.Google Scholar
Auld, Graeme, Bernstein, Steven, and Cashore, Benjamin. 2008. “The New Corporate Social Responsibility.” Annual Review of Environment and Resources 33: 413–435.Google Scholar
Auld, Graeme, Gulbrandsen, Lars H., and McDermott, Constance. 2008. “Certification Schemes and the Impact on Forests and Forestry.” Annual Review of Environment and Resources 33: 187–211.Google Scholar
Azevedo, Tasso Rezende de 2008. “The Role of Technology.” Keynote presentation to VERIFOR/FAO International Workshop on Legality of Traded Timber: The Development Challenges. Rome, Italy: Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations. Available from http://www.verifor.org/RESOURCES/presentations/intlworkshop/Tasso-azevedo.pdf (last accessed 20 September 2010).Google Scholar
Balboa, Cristina M. 2009. When Non-governmental Organizations Govern: Accountability in Private Conversation Networks. Ph.D. dissertation, Yale University, New Haven.Google Scholar
Baquero, Jaime. 1999. “The Trade of Ornamental Fish from the Philippines.” Reefs.org, 21 February 1999, 7.Google Scholar
Barber, Charles and Pratt, Vaughan. 1997. Sullied Seas. Washington DC: World Resources Institute.Google Scholar
Bartley, Tim. 2003. “Certifying Forests and Factories: States, Social Movements, and the Rise of Private Regulation in the Apparel and Forest Products Fields.” Politics & Society 31 (3): 433–464.Google Scholar
Bartley, Tim. 2007. “Institutional Emergence in an Era of Globalization: The Rise of Transnational Private Regulation of Labor and Environmental Conditions.” American Journal of Sociology 113 (2): 297–351.Google Scholar
Bartley, Tim. 2010. “Transnational Private Regulation in Practice: The Limits of Forest and Labor Standards Certification in Indonesia.” Business and Politics 12 (3).Google Scholar
Basel Action Network. 2005. “The Digital Dump: Exporting Re-Use and Abuse to Africa.” Available from http://www.ban.org/Library/TheDigitalDump.pdf (last accessed 29 November 2008).Google Scholar
Basel Action Network. 2009. Performance Requirements Excerpted from the E-Stewards Standard for Responsible Recycling and Reuse of Electronic Equipment. Version 1.0. (22 July 2009). Available from http://e-stewards.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/02/e-StewardStandard_ExcerptedVersion.pdf (last accessed 20 August 2009).Google Scholar
Basel Action Network and Silicon Valley Toxics Coalition. 2002. “Exporting Harm: The High-Tech Trashing of Asia.” Available from http://www.ban.org/E-waste/technotrashfinalcomp.pdf (last accessed 29 November 2008).Google Scholar
Bernstein, Steven and Cashore, Benjamin. 2004. “Non-State Global Governance: Is Forest Certification a Legitimate Alternative to a Global Forest Convention?” In Hard Choices, Soft Law: Combining Trade, Environment, and Social Cohesion in Global Governance, edited by Kirton, John and Trebilcock, Michael. Aldershot: Ashgate Press, 33–63 Google Scholar
Bernstein, Steven and Cashore, Benjamin. 2007. “Can Non-State Global Governance Be Legitimate? An Analytical Framework.” Regulation and Governance 1 (4): 347–371.Google Scholar
Bird, Neil and Thiel, Hans. 2007. “New Technologies in Support of Improved Forest Governance: Factors Influencing Success.” VERIFOR BRIEFING PAPER February 2007.Google Scholar
Braithwaite, John, and Drahos, Peter. 2000. Global Business Regulation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Briggs, Chad. 2010. IES/UCL E-Waste Tracking. Presentation. Institute for Environmental Security, June 7. Available from http://www.envirosecurity.org/news/single.php?id=309 (last accessed September 15 2010).Google Scholar
Brown, David. 2009. “Building National Capacity for Forest Governance Reform: The Role of Institutions.” Paper presented at World Forestry Congress, Buenos Aires, October 2009.Google Scholar
Brown, James. 2005. “An Account of the Dolphin-Safe Tuna Issue in the UK.” Marine Policy 29 (1): 39–46.Google Scholar
Bunting, Bruce. 2001. “Buy a Fish, Buy a Coral, Save a Reef: The Importance of Economic Incentives to Sustain Conservation.” Paper presented at the Marine Ornamentals 2001 Conference, Lake Buena Vista, November 2001. Google Scholar
Büthe, Tim. 2002. “Taking Temporality Seriously: Modeling History and the Use of Narratives as Evidence.” The American Political Science Review 96 (3): 481–494.Google Scholar
Büthe, Tim. 2010a. “Private Regulation in the Global Economy: A (P)Review.” Business and Politics 12 (3).Google Scholar
Büthe, Tim. 2010b. “Engineering Uncontestedness? The Institutional Development of the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) as a Private Regulator.” Business and Politics 12 (3).Google Scholar
Büthe, Tim and Mattli, Walter. 2011. New Global Rulers: The Privatization of Regulation in the World Economy. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Cafaggi, Fabrizio and Janczuk, Agnieszka. 2010. “Private Regulation and Legal Integration: The European Case.” Business and Politics 12 (3).Google Scholar
Capoor, Karan and Ambrosi, Phillippe. 2008. State and Trends of the Carbon Market 2008. Washington, DC: The World Bank.Google Scholar
Cashore, Benjamin. 2002. “Legitimacy and the Privatization of Environmental Governance: How Non-State Market-Driven (NSMD) Governance Systems Gain Rule-Making Authority.” Governance 15 (4): 503–529.Google Scholar
Cashore, Benjamin, Auld, Graeme, Bernstein, Steven, and McDermott, Constance. 2007. “Can Non-State Governance ‘Ratchet up’ Global Environmental Standards? Lessons from the Forest Sector.” Review of European Community and International Environmental Law 16 (2): 158–172.Google Scholar
Cashore, Benjamin, Auld, Graeme, and Newsom, Deanna. 2004. Governing through Markets: Forest Certification and the Emergence of Non-State Authority. New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Cashore, Benjamin, Gale, Fred, Meidinger, Errol, and Newsom, Deanna, eds. 2005. Confronting Sustainability: Forest Certification in Developing and Transitioning Societies. New Haven, CT: Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies Publication Series.Google Scholar
Cervino, James, Hayes, Raymond, Honovitch, Marinela, Goreau, Thomas J., Jones, Sam, Rubec, and Peter J. 2003. “Changes in Zooxanthellae Density, Morphology, and Mitotic Index in Hermatypic Corals and Anemones Exposed to Cyanide.” Marine Pollution Bulletin 46 (5): 573–586.Google Scholar
Chandra, Sunil. 2005. “Application of Remote Sensing and GIS Technology in Forest Fire Risk Modeling and Management of Forest Fires: A Case Study in the Garhwal Himalayan Region.” In Geo-Information for Disaster Management, edited by van Oosterom, Peter, Zlatanova, Siyka, and Fendel, Elfriede M. Berlin, Heidelberg and New York: Springer, 1239–1254.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chuenpagdee, Ratana, Morgan, Lance E., Maxwell, Sara M., Norse, Elliott A., and Pauly, Daniel. 2003. “Shifting Gears: Assessing Collateral Impacts of Fishing Methods in US Waters.” Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 1 (10): 517–524.Google Scholar
Clapp, Jennifer. 1998. “The Privatization of Global Environmental Governance: ISO 14000 and the Developing World.” Global Governance 4 (3): 295–316.Google Scholar
Courville, Sasha. 2008. “Organic and Social Certifications: Recent Developments from the Global Regulators.” In Confronting the Coffee Crisis: Fair Trade, Sustainable Livelihoods and Ecosystems in Mexico and Central America, edited by Bacon, Christopher M., Ernesto Mendez, V., Gliessman, Stephen R., Goodman, David and Fox, Jonathan A. Cambridge: MIT Press, 289–310.Google Scholar
Daily News and Analysis. 2010. “Maharastra to Have Flying Squads for Tracking E-waste.” 18 July 2010. Available from http://www.dnaindia.com/mumbai/report_maharashtra-to-have-flying-squads-for-tracking-e-waste_1411458 (last accessed 15 September 2010.)Google Scholar
Daviron, Benoit and Ponte, Stefano. 2005. The Coffee Paradox: Global Markets, Commodity Trade and the Elusive Promise of Development. London and New York: Zed Books Ltd. in association with CTA Wageningen.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Degen, Bernd, ed. 2007. Proceedings of the International Workshop “Fingerprinting Methods for the Identification of Timber Origins.” Germany: Institute of Forest Genetics.Google Scholar
Degen, Bernd, ed. 2008. Putting Timber Fingerprinting into Practice; Progress Towards Tracing Illegal Logging with DNA and Chemical Fingerprint Methods. Germany: Institute of Forest Genetics.Google Scholar
Delmas, Magali. 2002. “The Diffusion of Environmental Management Standards in Europe and in the United States: An Institutional Perspective.” Policy Sciences 35 (1): 91–119.Google Scholar
Durevall, Dick. 2007. “Competition in the Swedish Coffee Market, 1978-2002.” International Journal of Industrial Organization 25 (4): 721–739.Google Scholar
e-Stewards. 2010. “About Us: Background and History.” http://e-stewards.org/about/ (last accessed 15 September 2010).Google Scholar
Erceg, Diane. 2006. “Deterring IUU Fishing through State Control over Nationals.” Marine Policy 30 (2): 173–179.Google Scholar
Food and Agricultural Organization. 2007. The State of the World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2006. Rome, Italy: Fisheries and Aquaculture Department, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.Google Scholar
Fowler, Penny and Heap, Simon. 2000. “Bridging Troubled Waters: The Marine Stewardship Council.” In Terms of Endearment: Business, NGOs, and Sustainable Development, edited by Bendell, Jem. Sheffield, UK: Greenleaf Publishing, 135–148.Google Scholar
Fridell, Gavin. 2007. Fair Trade Coffee: The Prospects and Pitfalls of Market-Driven Social Justice. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.Google Scholar
Fuller, Doug O. 2006. “Tropical Forest Monitoring and Remote Sensing: A New Era of Transparency in Forest Governance?” Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography 27 (1): 15–29.Google Scholar
Gale, Fred P. 1998. The Tropical Timber Trade Regime. New York: St. Martin's Press.Google Scholar
Gautam, Ambika. 2006a. “Combining Geomatics and Conventional Methods for Monitoring Forest Conditions under Different Governance Arrangements.” Journal of Mountain Science 3 (4): 325–333.Google Scholar
Gautam, Ambika. 2006b. “Integrating Spatial Technology, Local Knowledge, and Conventional Methods in Forestry Research.” Paper presented at the International Association for the Study of Common Property Conference, Bali, Indonesia, June 2006.Google Scholar
Giovannucci, Daniele and Koekoek, Freek Jan. 2003. The State of Sustainable Coffee: A Study of Twelve Major Markets. Report. ICO, UNCTAD and IISD. Available from http://www.iisd.org/publications/pub.aspx?pno=579 (last accessed 13 March 2006).Google Scholar
Gordon, Janey. 2005. “Editorial: Mobile Phones.” Convergence: The International Journal of Research into New Media Technologies 11 (2): 5–12.Google Scholar
Green, Jessica F. 2010. “Private Standards in the Climate Regime: The Greenhouse Gas Protocol.” Business and Politics 12 (3).Google Scholar
Greenberg, Russell, Bichier, Peter, Cruz Angon, Andrea, and Reitsma, Robert. 1997. “Bird Populations in Shade and Sun Coffee Plantations in Central Guatemala. Poblaciones de Aves en Plantaciones Cafetaleras en Sombra y Sol en la Regional Central de Guatemala.” Conservation Biology 11 (2): 448–459.Google Scholar
Greenpeace. 2008. Gif Voor Ghana. De Dump Van Nederlands Electronica-Afval in Ghana (Poison for Ghana. The Dumping of Dutch Electronic Waste in Ghana). Amsterdam: Greenpeace Netherlands.Google Scholar
Gresser, Charis and Tickell, Sophia. 2002. Mugged: Poverty in Your Coffee Cup. Oxford: Oxfam International. Available from http://www.maketradefair.com/assets/english/mugged.pdf (last accessed 13 March 2006).Google Scholar
Grossman, Elizabeth. 2006. High Tech Trash. Digital Devices, Hidden Toxics, and Human Health. Washington: Island Press.Google Scholar
Gunningham, Neil, Grabosky, Peter N., and Sinclair, Darren. 1998. Smart Regulation: Designing Environmental Policy, Oxford Socio-Legal Studies. Oxford and New York: Clarendon Press and Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Hagendijk, Rob and Irwin, Alan. 2006. “Public Deliberation and Governance: Engaging with Science and Technology in Contemporary Europe.” Minerva 44 (2): 167–184.Google Scholar
Hague, Barry N. and Loader, Brian. 1999. Digital Democracy: Discourse and Decision Making in the Information Age. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Hamilton, K., Sjardin, M., Peters-Stanley, M., and Marcello, T. 2010. Building Bridges: State of the Voluntary Carbon Markets 2010. Washington, DC: Ecosystem Marketplace and Bloomberg New Energy Finance.Google Scholar
Hansen, James, Sato, Makiko, Kharecha, Pushker, Beerling, David, Berner, Robert, Masson-Delmotte, Valerie, Pagani, Mark, Raymo, Maureen, Royer, Dana L., and Zachos, James C. 2008. “Target Atmospheric CO2: Where Should Humanity Aim?” The Open Atmospheric Science Journal 2: 217–231.Google Scholar
Helveta. 2009. “World Forestry Congress Poster.” Paper presented at World Forestry Congress, Buenos Aires, October 2009.Google Scholar
Humphreys, David. 1996. Forest Politics: The Evolution of International Cooperation. London: Earthscan.Google Scholar
IDC. 2008. “PC Market Still Strong in Q4 with Solid Growth across Regions, According to IDC” (Press Release, 16 January 2008). Available from http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS21041708 (last accessed 29 November 2008).Google Scholar
IDC. 2009a. “PC Shipments to Drop 4.5% in 2009, According to IDC” (Press Release 5 March 2009) Available from http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS21725509 (last accessed 22 April 2009).Google Scholar
IDC. 2009b. “Worldwide Mobile Phone Market Declines by 12.6% in Fourth Quarter, More Challenges to Come Says IDC” (Press Release 4 February 2009). Available from http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS21659209 (last accessed 22 April 2009).Google Scholar
Institute of Scrap Recycling Industries. 2009. Introduction to RIOS. Available from http://www.isri.org/AM/Template.cfm?Section=Home1&TEMPLATE=/CM/ContentDisplay.cfm&CONTENTID=9415 (last accessed 23 April 2009).Google Scholar
INTERPOL. 2009. Electronic Waste and Organized Crime: Assessing the Links. Phase II Report For the INTERPOL Pollution Crime Working Group. INTERPOL, May. Available from https://www.interpol.int/Public/ICPO/FactSheets/Wastereport.pdf (last accessed 14 September 2010).Google Scholar
IPCC. 2007. Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. edited by Pachauri [Core Writing Team, R.K and Reisinger, A. (eds.)]. Geneva, Switzerland: International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).Google Scholar
Kaiser, Michel J. and Edwards-Jones, Gareth. 2006. “The Role of Ecolabeling in Fisheries Management and Conservation.” Conservation Biology 20 (2): 392–398.Google Scholar
Kollmuss, Anja, Zink, Helge, and Polycarp, Clifford. 2008. Making Sense of the Voluntary Carbon Market: A Comparison of Carbon Offset Standards. Stockholm Environment Institute and Tricorona.Google Scholar
Körber, Achim. 1998. “Why Everybody Loves Flipper: The Political-Economy of the U.S. Dolphin-Safe Laws.” European Journal of Political Economy 14 (3): 475–509.Google Scholar
Krkosek, Martin, Ford, Jennifer S., Morton, Alexandra, Lele, Subhash, Myers, Ransom A., and Lewis, Mark A. 2007. “Declining Wild Salmon Populations in Relation to Parasites from Farm Salmon.” Science 318 (5857): 1772–1775.Google Scholar
Kuehr, Ruediger and Williams, Eric. eds. 2002. Computers and the Environment. Understanding and Managing Their Impact. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.Google Scholar
Leakey, Richard and Lewin, Roger. 1995. The Sixth Extinction: Biodiversity and Its Survival. New York: Doubleday.Google Scholar
Levin, Kelly, Cashore, Benjamin, and Christensen, Peter. 2009. “Bolstering Environmental Integrity and Sustainable Development Benefits of the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM): Can Non-State Certification Systems Facilitate State-Centered Efforts?” Paper presented to the New Frontiers in Global Environmental Governance Workshop, Waterloo, January 2009.Google Scholar
Levin, Kelly, Cashore, Benjamin, and Koppell, Jonathan. 2009. “Can Non-State Certification Systems Bolster State-Centered Efforts to Promote Sustainable Development through the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)?” Wake Forest Law Review 44 (3): 777–798.Google Scholar
Linton, April, Chiayuan Liou, Cindy, and Ann Shaw, Kelly. 2004. “A Taste of Trade Justice: Marketing Global Social Responsibility via Fair Trade Coffee.” Globalizations 1 (2): 223–246.Google Scholar
Luttinger, Nina and Dicum, Gregory. 2006. The Coffee Book: Anatomy of an Industry from Crop to the Last Drop. Revised and updated edition. New York and London: The New Press.Google Scholar
Mabbett, Terry. 2007. “Stored Coffees Come of Age.” Tea and Coffee Trade Journal 179 (5). Available from http://www.teaandcoffee.net/0507/coffee.htm (last accessed 20 November 2008).Google Scholar
Marine Aquarium Council. 2006. Using Information Technology for Identity Preservation and Traceability to Transform the Marine Aquarium Trade. Manila (Philippines): Marine Aquarium Council.Google Scholar
Marine Stewardship Council. 2009. Marine Stewardship Council Annual Report 2008/2009. Available from http://www.msc.org/documents/mscbrochures/annual-report-archive/MSC-annual-report-2008-09.pdf (last accessed 20 May 2010).Google Scholar
Marine Stewardship Council. 2010. “Traceability in the supply chain.” Available from http://www.msc.org/about-us/credibility/traceability-in-the-supply-chain (last accessed 20 May 2010).Google Scholar
McDermott, Constance, Noah, Emily, and Cashore, Benjamin. 2006. “Differences That ‘Matter’? A Framework for Comparing Environmental Certification Standards and Government Policies.” Journal of Environmental Policy and Planning 10 (1): 47–70.Google Scholar
Meidinger, Errol E. 2006. “The Administrative Law of Global Private-Public Regulation: The Case of Forestry.” The European Journal of International Law 17 (1): 47–87.Google Scholar
Meinshausen, Malte. 2005. “On the Risk of Overshooting 2 Degrees C.” Zurich, Switzerland: Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Environmental Physics, Department of Environmental Sciences.Google Scholar
Meyer, Frederick and Gereffi, Gary. 2010. “Regulation and Economic Globalization: Prospects and Limits of Private Governance.” Business and Politics 12 (3).Google Scholar
Meyer, Kenneth B. 2008. “Restitution and the Lacey Act: New Solutions, Old Remedies.” Cornell Law Review 93 (4): 849–872.Google Scholar
Murray, Douglas L. and Raynolds, Laura T. 2000. “Alternative Trade in Bananas: Obstacles and Opportunities for Progressive Social Change in the Global Economy.” Agriculture and Human Values 17 (1): 65–74.Google Scholar
Mutersbaugh, Tad. 2005. “Fighting Standards with Standards: Harmonization, Rents, and Social Accountability in Certified Agrofood Networks.” Environment and Planning A 37 (11): 2033–2051.Google Scholar
Mutersbaugh, Tad. 2008. Serve and Certify: Paradoxes of Services Work in Organic Coffee Certification. In Confronting the Coffee Crisis: Fair Trade, Sustainable Livelihoods and Ecosystems in Mexico and Central America, edited by Bacon, Christopher M., Ernesto Mendez, V., Gliessman, Stephen R., Goodman, David and Jonathan, A. Fox, Cambridge: MIT Press, 261–288.Google Scholar
Naylor, Rosamond and Burke, Marshall. 2005. “Aquaculture and Ocean Resources: Raising Tigers of the Sea.” Annual Review of Environment and Resources 30: 185–218.Google Scholar
Naylor, Rosamond L., Goldburg, Rebecca J., Primavera, Jurgenne H., Kautsky, Nils, Beveridge, Malcolm C. M., Clay, Jason, Folke, Carl, Lubchenco, Jane, Mooney, Harold, and Troell, Max. 2000. “Effect of Aquaculture on World Fish Supplies.” Nature 405 (6790): 1017–1024.Google Scholar
Nielsen, Lene Rostgaard and Kjaer, Erik Dahl. 2008. Tracing Timber from Forest to Consumer with DNA Markers. Copenhagen: Danish Ministry of the Environment, Forest and Nature Agency. Available from http://www.akovognatur.dk/udgivelser (last accessed 20 September 2010).Google Scholar
O'Rourke, Dara. 2003. “Outsourcing Regulation: Analyzing Nongovernmental Systems of Labor Standards and Monitoring.” Policy Studies Journal 31 (1): 1–29.Google Scholar
Organic Consumers Association. 2007. Seafood: Bringing Fair Trade and Sustainability Concerns Together. News release. Organic Consumers Association, February 13. Available from http://www.organicconsumers.org/articles/article_4131.cfm (last accessed 9 June 2007).Google Scholar
Pauly, Daniel, Alder, Jackie, Bennett, Elena, Christensen, Villy, Tyedmers, Peter, and Watson, Reg. 2003. “The Future for Fisheries.” Science 302 (5649): 1359–1361.Google Scholar
Perfecto, Ivette, Rice, Robert A., Greenberg, Russell, and Van der Voort, Martha E. 1996. “Shade Coffee: A Disappearing Refuge for Biodiversity.” Bioscience 46 (8): 598–608.Google Scholar
Pickles, John. 1997. “Tool or Science? GIS, Technoscience, and the Theoretical Turn.” Annals of the Association of American Geographers 87 (2): 363–372.Google Scholar
Pimm, Stuart L. and Brooks, Thomas M. 2000. “The Sixth Extinction: How Large, How Soon, and Where?” In Nature and Human Society: The Quest for a Sustainable World, edited by Raven, Peter. Washington D.C.: National Academy Press, 46–62.Google Scholar
Ponte, Stefan. 2004. Standards and Sustainability in the Coffee Sector. Sustainable Commodity Initiative, a Joint Venture of the UN Conference on Trade and IISD. Winnipeg: International Institute for Sustainable Development.Google Scholar
Ponte, Stefan. 2008. “Greener Than Thou: The Political Economy of Fish Ecolabeling and Its Local Manifestations in South Africa.” World Development 36 (1): 159–175.Google Scholar
Rama, D.B.K., and Jaga, K. 1992. “Pesticide Exposure and Cholinesterase Levels among Farm Workers in the Republic of South Africa.” The Science of the Total Environment 122 (5): 315–319.Google Scholar
Raynolds, Laura T., Murray, Douglas, and Heller, Andrew. 2007. “Regulating Sustainability in the Coffee Sector: A Comparative Analysis of Third-Party Environmental and Social Certification Initiatives.” Agriculture and Human Values 24 (2): 147–163.Google Scholar
Renckens, Stefan. 2008. “Yes, We Will! Voluntarism in US E-Waste Governance.” Review of European Community & International Environmental Law 17 (3): 286–299.Google Scholar
Renckens, Stefan. 2010. “The Emergence of Competing Certification Standards in the Electronics Recycling Industry.” Paper presented at American Political Science Association Annual Conference, Washington, DC, September 2010. Google Scholar
Resosudarmo, Budy P. and Subiman, Nina I. 2006. “The Link between Firm Characteristics, Bribery, and Illegal Logging in Indonesian Wood-Based Industries.” ASEAN Economic Bulletin 23 (3): 360–372.Google Scholar
Rice, Robert A. and McLean, Jennifer. 1999. Sustainable Coffee at the Crossroads. A White Paper Prepared for the Consumer's Choice Council, October 15. Available from http://www.greenbeanery.ca/bean/documents/sustainableCoffee.pdf (last accessed 14 March 2006).Google Scholar
Rice, Robert A. and Ward, Justin R. 1996. Coffee, Conservation, and Commerce in the Western Hemisphere: How Individuals and Institutions Can Promote Ecologically Sound Farming and Forest Management in Northern Latin America. Online report. Smithsonian Migratory Bird Center, June (last accessed 13 March 2006).Google Scholar
Ridder, Ralph. 2007. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2010: Options and Recommendations for a Global Remote Sensing Survey of Forests. Working Paper 141. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Available from http://www.fao.org/forestry/16678-1-0.pdf (last accessed 20 September 2010).Google Scholar
Rubec, Peter J., Cruz, Ferdinand, Pratt, Vaughan, Oellers, Richard, and Lallo, Frank. 2001. “Cyanide-Free, Net-Caught Fish for the Marine Aquarium Trade.” Aquarium Sciences and Conservation 3 (1-3): 37–51.Google Scholar
Shreck, Aimee. 2005. “Resistance, Redistribution, and Power in the Fair Trade Banana Initiative.” Agriculture and Human Values 22 (1): 17–29.Google Scholar
Shuman, Craig S., Hodgson, Gregor, Ambrose, and Richard F. 2004. “Managing the Marine Aquarium Trade: Is Eco-Certification the Answer?” Environmental Conservation 31 (4): 339–348.Google Scholar
Sinclair, Tony, Hik, David, Schmitz, Oswald J., Scudder, Geoffery G.E., Turpin, David H., and Larter, Nic C. 1995. “Biodiversity and the Need for Habitat Renewal.” Ecological Applications 5 (3): 579–587.Google Scholar
Specialty Coffee Association of America. 2005. Draft Comparison Codes for Communication Purposes – Comparing Coffee Codes: Organic, Fair Trade, Rainforest Alliance Certified, Utz Kapeh and the Common Code. Comparison matrix, August 17. Available from http://www.scaa.org/pdfs/SCAAComparingCoffeeCodes_Aug2005.pdf (last accessed 15 March 2005).Google Scholar
Speth, James Gustave. 2008. The Bridge at the Edge of the World: Capitalism, the Environment, and Crossing from Crisis to Sustainability. New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Starobin, Shana and Weinthal, Erika. 2010. “The Search for Credible Information in Social and Environmental Global Governance: The Kosher Label.” Business and Politics 12 (3).Google Scholar
Tacon, Albert and Brister, Deborah. 2002. “Organic Aquaculture: Current Status and Future Prospects.” In Organic agriculture, environment and food security, edited by El-Hage Scialabba, Nadia and Hattam, Caroline. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Available from http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/Y4137E/y4137e00.HTM (last accessed August 2008).Google Scholar
Taylor, J. Gary and Scharlin, Patricia J. 2004. Smart Alliance: How a Global Corporation and Environmental Activists Transformed a Tarnished Brand. New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Technologia, Arvus. 2009. “Technology for Silviculture and Harvester Traceability.” Paper presented at World Forestry Congress, Buenos Aires, October 2009.Google Scholar
Toxics Link. 2003. Scrapping the Hi-Tech Myth. Computer Waste in India. New Delhi: Toxics Link.Google Scholar
TZ1. 2008. “Beginners’ Guide to the Voluntary Carbon Market.” Available from http://tz1market.com/assets/beginnersguide.pdf (last accessed 1 October 2009).Google Scholar
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2008. Municipal Solid Waste in the United States: 2007 Facts and Figures. Washington, DC: United States Environmental Protection Agency.Google Scholar
UNEP. 2002. Global Environment Outlook-3. United Nations Environment Programme.Google Scholar
UNFCCC. 2009. Copenhagen Accord. UNFCCC.Google Scholar
USGBC. 2005. USGBC Forest Certification Program Evaluation: Briefing to Summit Participants. DC: US Green Building Council.Google Scholar
Kapeh, Utz. 2003. The Code of Conduct. Archived web-page. Amsterdam: Utz Kapeh. Available from http://web.archive.org/web/20040417082502/www.utzkapeh.org/Utzkapeh/ukwebsite.nsf/portal?Openframeset (last accessed 15 March 2007).Google Scholar
Kapeh, Utz. 2005. Utz Kapeh Code of Conduct 2004 Compared to the 2003 Code Version. Archived web-page. Amsterdam: Utz Kapeh. Available from http://web.archive.org/web/20050330054559/www.utzkapeh.org/archive/downloads/codechanges2004.pdf (last accessed 15 March 2007).Google Scholar
Viana, Virgilio, Ervin, Jamison, Donovan, Richard, Elliott, Chris, and Gholz, Henry. 1996. Certification of Forest Products: Issues and Perspectives: Island Press.Google Scholar
Vogel, David. 1997. “Trading up and Governing Across: Transnational Governance and Environmental Protection.” Journal of European Public Policy 4 (4): 556–571.Google Scholar
Weidenhamer, Jeffrey D. and Clement, Michael L. 2007. “Leaded Electronic Waste Is a Possible Source Material for Lead-Contaminated Jewelry.” Chemosphere 69 (7): 1111–1115.Google Scholar
Wesseling, Catharina, Antich, Daniel, Hogstedt, Christer, Cecilia Rodriguez, Ana, and Ahlbom, Anders. 1999. “Geographical Differences of Cancer Incidence in Costa Rica in Relation to Environmental and Occupational Pesticide Exposure.” International Journal of Epidemiology 28 (3): 365–374.Google Scholar
Wille, Chris. 2004. A Brief History of the Evolution of the Sustainable Agriculture Network and Rainforest Alliance Certified. UK Department for International Development.Google Scholar