Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-8bhkd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-15T03:50:03.578Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

“Don't Sell Things, Sell Effects”: Overseas Influences in New Zealand Department Stores, 1909–1956

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  13 December 2011

Evan Roberts
Evan Roberts
Affiliation:
EVAN ROBERTS is a doctoral student in the department of history and the Minnesota Population Center at the University of Minnesota, Twin Cities. He thanks Melanie Nolan, Tina Manko, Ludovic Cailluet, and three anonymous referees.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

In the years before World War II, New Zealand department stores became increasingly influenced by American ideas about salesmanship. This involved a shift away from British precepts about retailing, which discouraged initiative by sales-people and emphasized service. Stores that adopted American ideas were trying to become more competitive and began to appeal to working- and middle-class consumers. They imported the concept of “suggestion selling” and the idea of pushing complementary goods. New Zealand merchants modified American methods by relying on the use of manuals and bulletins to train salespeople and, unlike American stores, did not introduce commission payment schemes.

Type
Articles
Information
Business History Review , Volume 77 , Issue 2 , Summer 2003 , pp. 265 - 289
Copyright
Copyright © The President and Fellows of Harvard College 2003

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 “Farmers’ to the Fore—Again!” Big Store News (hereafter BSN) 4 (Oct. 1949): 11, 55/147, Box 9, Farmers’ Collection, MS1400, Auckland War Memorial Museum and Library (hereafter FC).

2 On the Prince School, see Benson, Susan Porter, Counter Cultures (Urbana, ID., 1986), 151–3Google Scholar; Deutsch, Sarah, Women and the City: Gender, Space, and Power in Boston, 1870-1940 (New York, 2000), 182Google Scholar; Norton, Helen Rich, Department-Store Education; an Account of the Training Methods Developed at the Boston School of Salesmanship under the Direction of Luanda Wyman Prince (Washington, D.C., 1917)Google Scholar. The most influential textbook on retail selling to come out of the school was Norton, Helen Rich, A Textbook on Retail Selling (Boston, 1919)Google Scholar.

3 Rappaport, Erika, Shopping for Pleasure: Gender and Public Life in London's West End, 1860-1914 (Princeton, 2000), 150–2, 57Google Scholar.

4 Ville, Simon, “An Historiographical Assessment of New Zealand Business History,” Business History 34 (1992): 86–102CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

5 Coleman, Peter J., Progressivism and the World of Reform: New Zealand and the Origins of the American Welfare State (Lawrence, Kans., 1987)Google Scholar; Phillips, Jock, Brief Encounter: American Forces and the New Zealand People, 1942-1945 (Wellington, 1992)Google Scholar.

6 Rosenberg, Emily S., “Consuming Women: Images of Americanization in the ‘American Century,’” Diplomatic History 23 (1999): 481–2CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

7 Chessel, Marie-Emmanuelle, “Training Sales Personnel in France between the Wars,” in Cathedrals of Consumption: The European Department Store, 1850-1939, eds. Crossick, Geoffrey and Jaumain, Serge (Aldershot, 1998), 95, 284Google Scholar; Furlough, Ellen, “Selling the American Way in Interwar France: Prix Uniques and the Salons des Arts Menagers,” Journal of Social History 26 (1993): 491–519CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

8 King, Leslie J., “The Growth of Commercial Activities in New Zealand Cities, 1953-58,” New Zealand Geographer 18 (Aug. 1962): 50–71CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

9 Rowe, J. W., “A Note on Retail Distribution in New Zealand,” Economic Journal 66 (1956): 367–70CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

10 The Optimist 21st Birthday Souvenir, no. 55/137, FC; Benson, Susan Porter, “Palace of Consumption and Machine for Selling: The American Department Store, 1890-1940,” Radical History Review 21 (1979): 204Google Scholar.

11 Department stores of this size also existed in the United States, but they have not received much academic attention. But see Klassen, Henry C., “T. C. Power & Bro.: The Rise of a Small Western Department Store,” Business History Review 66 (Winter 1992): 671–722CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Toning, Wayland A., “Department Stores in Down State Illinois, 1889-1943,” Business History Review 29 (Winter 1955): 335–49CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

12 Roberts, Evan, “Gender in Store: Salespeople's Working Hours and Union Organisation in New Zealand and the United States, 1930-1960,” Labour History 83 (2002): 107–30CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

13 Nystrom, Paul H., The Economics of Retailing (New York, 1930), 137–9Google Scholar; Pasdermadjian, H., The Department Store: Its Origins, Evolution and Economics (London, 1954), 4–8Google Scholar.

14 “Warnocks, 100 Years’ Value & Service, 1886-1986,” Wanganui Newspapers, May 1986; “Drayton Jones,” Retailer of N.Z. 1 (30 May 1948): 15-16. On the development of department stores in the United States from draperies, see Nystrom, The Economics of Retailing, 137-9.

15 Daniel M. G. Raff, “Robert Campeau and Innovation in the Internal and Industrial Organization of Department Store Retailing: Are the ‘80s and ‘90s the ‘20s and ‘30s All over Again (and Why Does It Matter)?” Business and Economic History 20 (1991): 54–5Google Scholar.

16 See, for example, the annual reports of Beath's (Christchurch) at the Christchurch City Council Heritage Division (uncataloged); Annual Report, Milne & Choyce, 1951-1960 (Auckland), 0254 1/1, Fletcher Challenge Archives and Records Management, Auckland (hereafter FCL).

17 True, James, “Why the State Street Giants Are Establishing Suburban Stores,” Sales Management 17, no. 1 (1929): 21–2, 48Google Scholar; Oxenfeldt, Alfred R., “The Retailing Revolution: Why and Whither?” Journal of Retailing 36 (1960): 157–62Google Scholar; “Young Sears, Roebuck,” Fortune, Aug. 1948, 84-7, 129-30.

18 Caughey, Angela, Pioneer Families (Auckland, 1994), 159–69Google Scholar; Shaw, Louise, “Hallenstein Brothers and Company, 1876-1906: The Early Years of Mass Retailing in New Zealand” (Postgraduate Diploma in Arts Research Essay, University of Otago, 1994)Google Scholar; Thompson, Marian E., Beaths Centennial: Argyle House, 1860-1960 (Christchurch, 1960)Google Scholar; Tucker, K. A., Milne and Choyce: A One-Hundred Year Business History, 1867-1967 (Auckland, 1968)Google Scholar; Dunstan, Keith, The Store on the Hill (Melbourne, 1979), 53Google Scholar; Parry, Gordon, Retailing Century: The First 100 Years of the DIC Ltd. (Dunedin, 1984)Google Scholar.

19 Caughey, Shona, Smith & Caughey Limited: The Times of Our Life, 1880-1980 (Auckland, 1980), 3Google Scholar. On A. T. Stewart, see Gardner, Deborah S., “A Paradise of Fashion: A. T. Stewart's Department Store, 1862-1875,” in A Needle, a Bobbin, a Strike: Women Needleworkers in America, eds. Jensen, Joan M. and Davidson, Sue (Philadelphia, 1985)Google Scholar; Ressiguie, Harry E., “Alexander Turney Stewart and the Development of the Department Store, 1823-1876,” Business History Review 39 (Autumn 1965): 301–22CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Ressiguie, , “The Decline and Fall of the Commercial Empire of A. T. Stewart,” Business History Review 36 (Autumn 1962): 255-86CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Ressiguie, , “A. T. Stewart's Marble Palace—The Cradle of the Department Store,” New York Historical Society Quarterly 47 (April 1964): 131–62Google Scholar.

20 Kay, Malcolm, Inside Story of Farmers’: First Complete Record of the Marvellous Growth of Laidlaw Leeds and the Farmers’ Trading Co. Ltd (Auckland, 1953), 18–19Google Scholar.

21 Laidlaw, Robert, “A Big Forward Move,” Farmers’ Union Trading Company Optimist (hereafter FUTCO) 92 (July 1919): 1–3,55/39, FC.Google Scholar

22 Kay, Inside Story of Farmers’, 111-19.

23 Milne & Choyce, Minutes of Board, 23 June 1938, 0251 2/2, FCL

24 Milne & Choyce, Minutes of Board, 29 May 1935, 0251 2/2, FCL.

25 Milne & Choyce, Minutes of Board, 20 Dec. 1933,4 Nov. 1936,1 Feb. 1938,02512/2, FCL.

26 General Manager's Report for month ending 19 July 1957, George Court's records, NZMS 515, Auckland Public Library (hereafter GCR).

27 Entry in Alexander Smith—Letterbook, 14 Jun e 1928, MS-Group 93-215-5/4, Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington (hereafter ATL).

28 New Zealand Official Yearbook (Wellington, 1920-50).

29 Millen, Julia, Kirkcaldie & Stains: A Wellington Story (Wellington, 2000), 119Google Scholar.

30 Eldred-Grigg, Stevan, Gardens of Fire (Auckland, 1993): 40–2.Google Scholar Although a historical novel, Gardens of Fire is based on interviews with many former Ballantyne's employees.

31 Laidlaw, Robert, “A City Merchant's Duties,” Laidlaw Leeds Optimist (hereafter LLO) 77 (Mar. 1918): 2, 55/38, FC.Google Scholar

32 “Trip Abroad,” Farmers'Staff and Store News (hereafter FSSN) 4 (24 Feb. 1938): 2, 55/144, FC.

33 Thompson, Beaths Centennial; “U.S. Leads in Men's Wear,” Retailer of N.Z. 1 (30 Nov. 1948): 29.

34 The Koester School (Chicago, 1928)Google Scholar, in Collinson & Cunninghame Collection, 86/135, Manawatu Museum, Palmerston North.

35 Milne & Choyce, Minutes of Board, 20 Sept. 1940, FCL, 0251 3/1.

36 “Efficiency Talks,” LLO 61 (Nov. 1916): 5, 55/36, FC.

37 Collinson & Cunninghame Collection File, Manawatu Museum, lists the books owned by the store; “Staff Library,” Farmers’ Trading Company Optimist (hereafter FTCO) 188 (July 1930): 9, 55/118, FC. Examples of extracts from books published overseas are too numerous to list in their entirety. See, for example, LLO 64 (Feb. 1917): 4, 55/37, FC, extracting from L. M. Cross, Successful Salesmanship (n.d.).

38 Kay, in Inside Story of Farmers', states that Robert Laidlaw was a n enthusiastic reader of System before and after founding Laidlaw Leeds/Farmers’ (p. 18).

39 Robertson, D., “A Visit to Tattersfield's Factory,” LLO 73 (Nov. 1917): 9Google Scholar, 55/37, FC; “World Wide Number,” Dry Goods Economist (25 Sept. 1915): 39; “The Koester School Doubles Its Size,” Dry Goods Economist (24 Jan. 1914): 32; “Goods That Sell Themselves,” FUTCO 139 (June 1926): 5, 55/69Google Scholar, FC; “A Point on Courtesy,” Just Among Ourselves (June 1919), Collinson & Cunninghame, 86/135; Charles Knights, “Nothing Else,” FTCO 189 (Aug. 1930): 16, 55/119, FC; “For Pete's Sake, Keep Your Shirt On,” FSSN 4 (20 Oct. 1938): 2,55/144, FC.

40 “Increase Your Knowledge of the Goods You Sell and the Work You Do,” FSSN 1 (6 Sept. 1935): 3, 55/144, FC.Google Scholar For U.S. stores doing the same thing, see, for example, “The Emporium Library Opportunity to Learn,” Em-Scene 1 (16 Jan. 1957): 2Google Scholar, The Emporium, St. Paul (MN), Minnesota Historical Society (hereafter MNHS) microfilm 1665; Todd, J. R., “The Science of Knowing Your Merchandise,” Store News 6 (15 March 1919): 1Google Scholar, The Golden Rule, St. Paul, Minnesota Historical Society (MNHS) HF5465.U6 G6sa; Scherer, Miriam, “Employee Libraries,” Journal of Retailing 18 (Feb. 1942): 22–3Google Scholar.

41 Robinson, O. Preston, Retail Personnel Relations (New York, 1940), 449.Google Scholar

42 “Everyone Must Get the Store News,” FSSN 1 (17 May 1935): 1, 55/144, FC.

43 “Other Changes an d Appointments,” Farmers Store News (renamed Farmers' Staff and Store News) 1 (17 May 1935): 2, 55/144, FC.

44 Corbin, Claire J., “Survey of Department-Store Training Methods,” Journal of Retailing 18 (Feb. 1942): 16–21.Google Scholar

45 Beath's Rule Book, Christchurch, 1930s, 6, Christchurch City Council Heritage Division.

46 George Court's Rule Book, Auckland, 1940s, 12-13; Smith & Caughey Rule Book, Auckland, 1940s, 6-7, Christchurch City Council Heritage Division.

47 See, for example, Staff Manager's Report for month ending 30 June 1950, GCR; New Zealand Federated Shop Assistants Executive Minutes, 25 June 1931, Retail Shop Assistants Union, Canterbury Branch (hereafter CRSAU) MB 42 4a/a; “Staff Training Miss Berry's Work,” FSSN 1 (17 May 1935): 4Google Scholar, 55/144, FC; “Sixty-Six,” The House (Ballantyne's staff magazine), no. 18 (March 1959): 8; “Differences in Salesmen,” FTCO 169 (Dec. 1928): 3Google Scholar, 55/99, FC.

48 Smith & Caughey Rule Book, Auckland, 1940s, 7.

49 Ballantyne's Rule Book, Christchurch, 1939, 22; interview transcript, Clarice Faber, 30 May 1991, in Ballantyne's fire transcripts, Macmillan Brown Library, Christchurch, 394/1A-F.

50 “Help New Assistants,” FSSN 3 (2 Dec. 1937): 1Google Scholar; “It's All New to Newcomers,” FSSN 4 (17 Nov. 1938): 1.Google Scholar Both 55/144, FC.

51 George Court's Rule Book, Auckland, 1940s, 13.

52 A similar industrial relations system operated in Australia. See Reekie, Gail, “The Shop Assistants Case of 1907 and Labour Relations in Sydney's Retail Industry,” in Foundations of Arbitrations, eds. Macintyre, Stuart and Mitchell, Richard (Melbourne, 1989), 270–90Google Scholar.

53 Roberts, “Gender in Store,” 107-30.

54 New Zealand Federated Shop Assistant Executive Minutes, 7 Mar. 1946, CRSAU, MB42 4a/b; see also CRSAU Combined Management an d Group Committee Minutes, 3 July 1944, and CRSAU Executive Minutes, 1913-1957, MB42 le, p. 84.

55 Wellington Retail Soft Goods Trade Employees Award, Awards of New Zealand 13 (1913): 657–8Google Scholar; MSY-3599 Salary Book 1903-14, ATL.

56 Minutes of Meeting of Directors of Premier Drapery Company, 19 Nov. 1937,11, Co-op 11/1, Palmerston North City Library.

57 Summary financial results sheets, 1926–57 and Staff Manager's report for month ending 31 Mar. 1957 GCR.

58 Beath's, Partners in Profits (Christchurch, 1955).

59 Interview with Jessie Olsen, L. D. Nathan and Co. Ltd. Oral History Project, OHA LDN 1831 ABN 207, ATL Oral History Centre.

60 Yendell, A. J., “Two Drapery Firms Describe Their Staff Superannuation Schemes,” Retailer of N.Z. 1 (30 Sept. 1948): 9–11.Google Scholar Despite the title, one of the schemes discussed is a commission scheme; Yendell, A. J., “Employer-Employee Relationship,” Retailer of N.Z. 1 (20 Mar. 1948): 39.Google Scholar

61 Laidlaw, Robert, “Advancement,” LLO 38 (Dec. 1914): 2Google Scholar, Auckland War Memorial Museum and Library, MS 1400, Box 9, 55/24, FC.

62 Laidlaw, Robert, “Choosing a Firm to Work For,” LLO 64 (February 1917): 2–3Google Scholar, 55/37, FC. The managing director at Ballantyne's told the staff a similar “parable,” in which he had begun as an office boy. “The Managing Director Speaks,” The House 18 (Mar. 1959): 2.Google Scholar

63 Laidlaw, Robert, “Working with the Firm We Have Chose,” LLO 66 (Apr. 1917): 3, 55/37, FC.Google Scholar

64 “Efficiency Talks,” LLO 59 (Sept. 1916): 9, 55/36, FC.Google Scholar

65 “How Tom Chase Succeeded,” LLO 17 (May 1912): 7-13, 55/4, FC.

66 Wages Book, 1929-34, MSY-3578; Salary Book, 1926-29, MSY-3583; Salary Book, 1934-38, MSY-3584; Salary Book, 1929-34, MSY-3585; Salary Book, 1924-28, MSY-3589 all in MS group 93-215, James Smith's Ltd. Records, ATL.

67 “Free Trams Replace Free Buses,” FSSN 2 (8 May 1936): 1, 55/144, FC.

68 Advertisements in Scrapbook 1898-1949, MS Group 93-215-5/4, ATL.

69 “Show The Best,” FSSN 2 (19 June 1936): 1 55/144, FC; “Benefits,” The House, no. 9 (June 1958): 9-11.

70 LLO 28 (Feb. 1914): 4, 55/14, FC.

71 “The Career Behind the Counter,” FTCO 161 (Apr. 1928): 1, 55/91, FC.

72 “Show The Best,” 1.

73 “Is This Happening in Your Department?” FSSN 3 (2 Dec. 1937): 2; “Snap Into It!” FSSN 4 (8 Sept. 1938): 3. 55/144, FC.

74 Laidlaw, Robert, “Our New Building,” LLO 30 (Apr. 1914): 155/16Google Scholar; Cross, L. M., “How to Marry the Boss's Daughter,” LLO 64 (Feb. 1917): 4Google Scholar, 55/37; Laidlaw, Robert, “A Great Opportunity,” FUTCO 116 (July 1921): 1–2Google Scholar, 55/46; “Courtesies Bring Success,” FTCO 187 (June 1930): 13, 55/117; “First Impressions,” FSSN 4 (9 June 1938): 2, 55/144; “Good Salesmanship Means—,” FSSN 4 (20 Oct. 1938): 4, 55/144. All FC.

75 “Treating a Customer as a Nuisance,” FUTCO 149 (Apr. 1927): 14, 55/79, FC.

76 Kay, M., “The Goods We Sell: Ten Commandments for Salesmen,” FUTCO 114 (May 1921): 7Google Scholar, 55/45; “Tremendous Trifles,” FSSN 4 (14 July 1938): 1, 55/144. Both FC.

77 Benson, Counter Cultures, 156, Reekie, Gail, “Market Research and Post-War Housewife,” Australian Feminist Studies 14 (1991): 17Google Scholar.

78 “Seven Kinds of Customers,” FTCO 133 (Dec. 1925): 16, 55/63, FC.

79 A vast international literature addresses the topic of gender and consumer culture. I have particularly benefited from work by Gail Reekie, Erika Rappaport, Susan Porter Benson, and Gary Cross.

80 “What Do Your Customers Say?” FSSN 3 (15 Apr. 1937): 3, 55/144, FC.

81 Reekie, Gail, “Impulsive Women, Predictable Men: Psychological Constructions of Sexual Differences in Sales Literature to 1930,” Australian Historical Studies 28 (1991): 359–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

82 “Wake Up and Sell!” FSSN 4 (30 June 1938): 4, 55/144, FC.

83 “The Wife Decides a Sale,” FTCO 159 (Feb. 1928): 15, 55/89, FC.

84 “Psychology Can Boost Teen-Age Sales,” N.Z. Draper and Allied Retailer 26 (7 Aug. 1948): 57; “A Tip to Shop Assistants,” FTCO 133 (Dec. 1925): 15, 55/63, FC.

85 Sprecher, Danielle, “Good Clothes Are Good Business: Gender, Consumption and Appearance in the Office, 1918–39,” in The Gendered Kiwi, eds. Daley, Caroline and Montgomerie, Deborah (Auckland, 1999), 149–51.Google Scholar

86 “Seven Kinds of Customers,” FUTCO 133 (Dec. 1925): 16, 55/63; “Directors’ Column,” The Wrightsonian 1 (Nov. 1919): 6, 0284 FCL; “Study Your Customer,” Retailer of N.Z. 2 (10 Feb. 1949): 31.

87 Advertisement in Evening Post, 29 July 1933, in Scrapbook, 1932, f-93-215-1, ATL. See also Collinson & Cunninghame Catalogue, 1922-23, CC Collection 86/135, Manawatu Museum.

88 Parnes, Louis, Planning Stores That Pay (New York, 1948).Google Scholar

89 “Customers Want More Than They Ask For,” FUTCO 156 (Nov. 1927): 8, 55/86, FC.

90 Nystrom, Paul H., Elements of Retail Selling (New York, 1936), 280–1Google Scholar.

91 For example, “Do You Read the Advertisements?” BSN 4, no. 4 (June/July 1949): 19, 55/147; “A Suggestion re Friday ‘Specials’,” FUTCO 121 (Nov. 1924): 15, 55/51; “Salesmanship:—Selling Socks,” FTCO, no. 166 (Sept. 1928): 1-2, 55/96; “Why Let Good Money Walk Out of the Shop?” FSSN 1 (22 Nov. 1935): 2; “Adjust Complaints Cheerfully,” FSSN 2 (17 Nov. 1936): 1, 55/144. All FC.

92 Emphasis in original. “No Man Sells Merchandise,” FTCO 176 (July 1929): 16,55/106, FC.

93 FTCO 194 (Jan. 1931): 15, 55/123, FC.

94 “How You Can Please Customers,” FSSN 2 (17 Nov. 1936): 2, 55/144, FC; on rushing, see Nystrom, The Economics of Retailing, 213-17.

95 Benson, Counter Cultures, 258-65.

96 “A Selling Sentence Will Sell Almost Anything,” FTCO 170 (Jan. 1929): 16, 55/100, FC. From the United States, see, for example, Wheeler, Elmer, “Tested Selling Sentences,” Journal of Retailing 8 (1933): 122–6.Google Scholar

97 “The Personal Capital of Sales People,” FTCO (Sept. 1929): 2, 55/108, FC. This article was reprinted from Abraham & Strauss of Brooklyn.

98 “Make More Sales by Suggestions,” FSSN 3 (7 Oct. 1937): 4, 55/144, FC; compare with “Appropriate Words,” The Ruler 12 (Feb. 1925): 10, The Golden Rule, St. Paul. MNHS HF5465.U6 G65a.; Nystrom, Elements of Retail Selling, 240-9.

99 “Style! Style! Style!” FTCO 182 (Jan. 1930): 9, 55/112, FC; Sprecher, “Good Clothes are Good Business,” 143-4.

100 In Alexander Smith—Letterbook 1928 (14 June), MS-Group 93-215-5/4, ATL.

101 Sprecher, “Good Clothes are Good Business,” 143.

102 “Make More Sales By Suggestions,” 4; “How to Sell Neckties,” FTCO 159 (Feb. 1928): 16, 55/89, FC.

103 “Study Your Merchandise,” FSSN 3 (10 June 1937): 1, 55/144; Laidlaw, “Choosing a Firm to Work For,” 2; Laidlaw, Robert, “€66 Cash Competition,” LLO 70 (Aug. 1917): 1Google Scholar, 55/37; Giles, Ray, “Salesman's Fright: What Some Salesmen and Employers Have Done to Overcome It,” FUTCO 88 (Mar. 1919): 9–11Google Scholar, 55/39; “How Can We Sell Goods If We Don't Know What They Are?” FUTCO 128 (July 1925): 16, 55/58. All FC.

104 Robertson, D., “Get Together Talks on Merchandise,” LLO 45 (July 1915): 1–2Google Scholar, 55/30, FC.

105 “Keep Your Eyes Open! Teach Yourself!” FSSN4 (28 Apr. 1938): 3, 55/144, FC.

106 “Be Sure To Know Your Stock,” FSSN 4 (6 Oct. 1938): 1, 55/144, FC.

107 “Make More Sales By Suggestions,” FSSN3 (7 Oct. 1937): 4,55/144, FC.

108 Fields, Jill, “‘Fighting the Corsetless Evil’: Shaping Corsets and Culture, 1900–1930,” Journal of Social History 33 (1999): 364–6CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

109 Jarman, Hugh G., “Hints on—Selling Foundation,” N.Z. Draper and Allied Retailer 26 (7 Sept. 1948): 29.Google Scholar

110 “It All Depends on the Corset!” advertisement in Lyttleton Times and Press, 22 May 1915, Beath's newspaper scrapbook, Christchurch City Council Heritage Division.

111 “The New Way of Merchandising Corsets,” Dry Goods Economist 3711 (21 Aug. 1915): 37.

112 Best, Sue, “Foundations of Femininity: Berlei Corsets and the (Un)Making of the Modern Body,” Continuum 5 (1991): 191–214.CrossRefGoogle Scholar Compare Fields, “‘Fighting the Corsetless Evil,’” 372, on the United States.

113 Jarman, “Hints on—Selling Foundation,” 29.

114 James Smith's Scrapbook, James Smith's collection, f-93-215-1, ATL.

115 “why the Continued Shortage of Corsetieres?” N.Z. Draper and Allied Retailer 27 (7 Feb. 1949): 26.

116 Quote from “With Retailers at New Plymouth,” N.Z. Draper and Allied Retailer 26 (7 Apr. 1948): 26. See also “Overcoming Retail Staff Shortages,” Retailer of N.Z. 1 (31 July 1948): 35.

117 Emphasis in original. “Benefits,” The House 9 (June 1958): 9-11.

118 Boorstin, Daniel, The Americans: The Democratic Experience (New York, 1973), 101–64Google Scholar; Cross, Gary, An All-Consuming Century: Why Commercialism Won in Modern America (New York, 2000).Google Scholar

119 Chessel, “Training Sales Personnel in France between the Wars,” and Furlough, “Selling the American Way in Interwar France.”