Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-8ctnn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T04:07:08.716Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Cahokia and the Archaeology of Power

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 October 2009

Thomas E. Emerson ,
William S. Dancey ,
Timothy R. Pauketat ,
Alasdair Whittle ,
Elizabeth DeMarrais ,
Warren R. DeBoer  and
A.B. Kehoe
Thomas E. Emerson
Affiliation:
23 East Stadium Drive, Champaign, IL 61820, USA
William S. Dancey
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
Timothy R. Pauketat
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
Alasdair Whittle
Affiliation:
School of History and Archaeology, Cardiff University, P.O. Box 909, Cardiff CF1 3XU
Elizabeth DeMarrais
Affiliation:
University of Cambridge, Department of Archaeology, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3DZ
Warren R. DeBoer
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, Queens College, Flushing, NY 11367, USA
A.B. Kehoe
Affiliation:
3014 North Shepard Avenue, Milwaukee, WI53211, USA
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The days are long gone when archaeologists would automatically interpret any major prehistoric monument as evidence of a hierarchically organized society. Faced with a Stonehenge or a Silbury Hill, the evident deployment of large labour forces might naturally lead to thoughts of social élites and stratified societies. The task facing archaeologists today, however, is to interpret such monuments not as programmatic products of parallel social processes but as elements in unique and dynamic configurations of social, political and ideological interactions. This is the approach which the present volume seeks to exemplify, taking as its focus the famous site of Cahokia in the Mississippi valley. Cahokia itself is the greatest monument complex of prehistoric North America, marked by 120 mounds spread over an area of 13 square kilometres across the Mississippi river from the modern city of St Louis. During the twelfth century AD this was a settlement with a population estimated to have numbered in the thousands if not tens of thousands. What does such a phenomenon represent in social and political terms?

In this book, Thomas Emerson considers not just the monuments of Cahokia themselves but the evidence for ideology and the power relationships which might have supported a hierarchical society, and the mechanisms which may have connected Cahokia with its rural hinterland. The wealth of detailed information available from the sites in and around Cahokia — some of them excavated by Emerson himself — allows a detailed analysis at a level which is rarely possible in archaeological cases of this kind. Drawing on concepts of individual agency, power and ideology as forces for social change, Emerson interprets the rise of Cahokia as the successful manipulation of ideology by élites, an ideology in which the subordinate layers of society are compelled to participate.

Emerson's study raises key questions about the rise and fall of complex societies, and the role of ideology and agency in that process. That these questions remain open to debate, the contributions to this review feature amply demonstrate. How hierarchical was Cahokia, how effective was élite ideology, and, above all, how can we go about analyzing this kind of question from the archaeological evidence? The results have a bearing on archaeological interpretation at the very broadest level.

Type
Review Feature
Information
Cambridge Archaeological Journal , Volume 9 , Issue 2 , October 1999 , pp. 249 - 275
Copyright
Copyright © The McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research 1999

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Anderson, D.G., 1997. The role of Cahokia in the evolution of southeastern Mississippian society, in Pauketat, & Emerson, (eds.), 248–68.Google Scholar
Bareis, C.J. & Porter, J.W. (eds.), 1984. American Bottom Archaeology. Urbana (IL): University of Illinois Press.Google Scholar
Barker, A.W. & Pauketat, T.R. (eds.), 1992. Lords of the Southeast: Social Inequality and the Native Elites of Southeastern North America. (Archeological Papers 3.) Washington (DC): American Anthropological Association.Google Scholar
Beck, L.A., 1995. Regional cults and ethnic boundaries in ‘Southern Hopewell’, in Regional Approaches to Mortuary Analysis, ed. Beck, L.. New York (NY): Plenum, 167–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Binford, L., 1965. Archaeological systematics and the study of culture process. American Antiquity 31, 203–10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Binford, L., 1968. Archaeological perspectives, in New Perspectives in Archaeology, eds. Binford, S.R. & Binford, L.R.. Chicago (IL): Aldine, 5–32.Google Scholar
Brose, D.S., Brown, J.A. & Penny, D.W. (eds.), 1985. Ancient Art of the American Woodland Indians. New York (NY): Harry N. Abrams.Google Scholar
Brown, J.A., 1976. Spiro Studies: the Artifacts, vol. 4. (Second Part of the Third Annual Report of Caddoan Archaeology.) Norman (OK): Spiro Focus Research.Google Scholar
Brown, J.A., 1985. The Mississippian period, in Ancient Arts of the American Woodland Indians, ed. Penny, D.A., Inc. New York (NY): Henry N. Abrams, 93–146.Google Scholar
Brown, J. A., 1996. The Spiro Ceremonial Center: the Archaeology of Arkansas Valley Caddoan Culture in Eastern Oklahoma. (Museum of Anthropology Memoir 29.) 2 volumes. Ann Arbor (MI): University of Michigan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brumfiel, E.M., 1994. Ethnic groups and political development in ancient Mexico, in Factional Competition and Political Development in the New World, eds. Brumfiel, E. & Fox, J.. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 89–102.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brumfiel, E., 1998. Huitzilopochtli's conquest: Aztec ideology in the archaeological record. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 8(1), 3–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Callender, C., 1978. Shawnee, in Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 15, ed. Trigger, B.G.. Washington (DC): Smithsonian Institution, 622–35.Google Scholar
Carneiro, R.L., 1998. Review of Muller's Mississippian Political Economy. Southeastern Archaeology 17, 182–3.Google Scholar
Carsten, J. & Hugh-Jones, S. (eds.), 1995. About the House: Lévi-Strauss and Beyond. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Collins, J.M., 1997. Cahokia settlement and social structures as viewed from the ICT-II, in Pauketat, & Emerson, (eds.), 124–40.Google Scholar
Dancey, W.S., 1996. Putting an end to Ohio Hopewell, in A View from the Core: a Synthesis of Ohio Hopewell Archaeology, ed. Pacheco, P.J.. Columbus (OH): Ohio Archaeological Council, 394–405.Google Scholar
DeBoer, W.R., 1988. Subterranean storage and thé organization of surplus: the view from eastern North America. Southeastern Archaeology 7, 1–20.Google Scholar
DeBoer, W.R., 1997. Ceremonial centres from the Cayapas Esmeraldas, Ecuador to Chillicothe (Ohio, USA). Cambridge Archaeological Journal 7(2), 225–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DeMarrais, E., Castillo, L.J. & Earle, T., 1996. Ideology, materialization, and power strategies. Current Anthropology 37, 15–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Douglas, M. & Isherwood, B., 1979. The World of Goods: Towards a Theory of Consumption. New York(NY): Allen Lane.Google Scholar
Driver, H.E., 1961. Indians of North America. Chicago (IL): University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Earle, T., 1989. The evolution of chiefdoms. Current Anthropology 30, 84–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Earle, T., 1997. How Chiefs Come to Power: the Political Economy in Prehistory. Stanford (CA): Stanford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Emberling, G., 1997. Ethnicity in complex societies: archaeological perspectives. Journal of Archaeological Research 5, 295–344.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Emerson, T.E., 1982. Mississippian Stone images in Illinois. (Circular No. 6.) Urbana (IL): Illinois Archaeological Survey.Google Scholar
Emerson, T.E., 1983. The Bostrom figure pipe and the Cahokian effigy style in the American Bottom. Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology 8, 257–67.Google Scholar
Emerson, T.E., 1989. Water serpents and the underworld: an exploration into Cahokian symbolism, in Galloway, (ed.), 45–92.Google Scholar
Emerson, T.E., 1991. Some perspectives on Cahokia and the northern Mississippian expansion, in Emerson, & Lewis, (eds.), 221–36.Google Scholar
Emerson, T.E., 1996. The Svehla effigy elbow pipe and spud: Mississippian elite sacra from the Sutter Collection. Tennessee Anthropologist 21(2), 124–31.Google Scholar
Emerson, T.E., 1997a. Reflections from the countryside on Cahokian hegemony, in Pauketat, & Emerson, (eds.), 167–89.Google Scholar
Emerson, T.E., 1997b. Cahokia elite ideology and the Mississippian cosmos, in Pauketat, & Emerson, (eds.), 190–228.Google Scholar
Emerson, T.E. & Hargrave, E., 1999a. Kane Mounds and Mississippian Mortuary Variation at the Edge of Cahokia. Paper presented at the 64th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, Chicago.Google Scholar
Emerson, T.E. & Hargrave, E., 1999b. Strangers in Paradise? Recognizing Ethnic Mortuary Diversity on the Fringes of Cahokia. Manuscript on file at the Illinois Transportation Archaeological Research Program, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.Google Scholar
Emerson, T.E. & Lewis, R.B. (eds.), 1991. Cahokia and the Hinterlands. Urbana (IL): University of Illinois Press.Google Scholar
Emerson, T.E. & Milner, G.R., 1981. The Mississippian Occupation of the American Bottom: the Communities. Paper presented at the 26th Annual Midwest Archaeological Conference, Madison (WI).Google Scholar
Emerson, T.E., Hargrave, E., Hedman, K., Simon, M. & Williams, V., 1996. New Data and Preliminary Insights into the Cahokian Collapse. Paper presented at the 61st annual meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, New Orleans.Google Scholar
Feinman, G.M., 1995. The emergence of inequality: a focus on strategies and processes, in Foundations of Social Equality, eds. Price, T.D. & Feinman, G.M.. New York (NY): Plenum Press, 255–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flannery, K.V., 1972. The cultural evolution of civilizations. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematic 3, 399–426.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fortier, A.C., 1992. Stone figurines, in The Sponemann Site 2: The Mississippian and Oneota Occupations, eds. Jackson, D.K., Fortier, A.C. & Williams, J.A.. (FAI-270 Site Reports 24.) Urbana (IL): University of Illinois, 277–303.Google Scholar
Foucault, M., 1979. Discipline and Punish: the Birth of the Prison. New York (NY): Vintage Books.Google Scholar
Foucault, M., 1986. Of other spaces. Diacritics 16, 22–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fowler, M.L., 1974. Cahokia: ancient capitol of the Midwest. Addison-Wesley Module in Anthropology 48, 3–38.Google Scholar
Fowler, M.L., 1989. The Cahokia Atlas: a Historical Atlas of Cahokia Archaeology. (Studies in Illinois Archaeology 6.) Springfield (IL): Illinois Historic Preservation Agency.Google Scholar
Fowler, M.L., 1991. Mound 72 and Early Mississippian at Cahokia, in Stoltman, (ed.), 1–28.Google Scholar
Fowler, M.L., 1997. The Cahokia Atlas Revised: a Historical Atlas of Cahokia Archaeology. (Studies in Archaeology 2.) Urbana-Champaign (IL): Illinois Transportation Archaeology Research Program, University of Illinois.Google Scholar
Fraser, C. (ed.), 1991. Psychological Studies of Widespread Beliefs. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Fritz, G.J., 1994. Precolumbian Cucurbita argyrosperma ssp. argyrosperma in the eastern woodlands of North America. Economic Botany 48, 280–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fundaburk, E.L. & Foreman, M.D., 1957. Sun Circles and Human Hands: the Southeastern Indians, Art and Industries. Luverne: Emma Lila Fundaburk.Google Scholar
Galloway, P., 1989. The Southeastern Ceremonial Complex: Artifacts and Analysis. Lincoln (NB): University of Nebraska Press.Google Scholar
Gibbon, G.E., 1974. A model of Mississippian development and its implications for the Red Wind Area, in Aspects of Upper Great Lakes Anthropology, ed. Johnson, E.. Minneapolis (MN): Minnesota Historical Society, 129–37.Google Scholar
Giddens, A., 1979. Central Problems in Social Theory. London: Macmillan Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greber, N.B. & Ruhl, K.C., 1989. The Hopewell Site. Boulder (CO): Westview Press.Google Scholar
Griffin, J.B., Flanders, R.E. & Titterington, P.F., 1970. The Burial Complexes of the Knight and Norton Mounds in Illinois and Michigan. (Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology 2.) Ann Arbor (MI): University of Michigan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Griffith, R.J., 1981. Ramey Incised Pottery. (Circular 5.) Urbana (IL): Illinois Archaeological Survey.Google Scholar
Grove, D.C., 1987. Torches’, ‘knuckle dusters’ and the legitimization of Formative period rulership. Mexicon 9, 60–65.Google Scholar
Haas, D., 1996–97. The Federal Archeology Program 1996–97. Washington (DC): United States Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Archaeology and Ethnography Program.Google Scholar
Haberland, W., 1964. The Art of North America. New York (NY): Crown Publishers.Google Scholar
Hall, R.L., 1989. The cultural background of Mississippian symbolism, in Galloway, (ed.), 239–78.Google Scholar
Hall, R.L., 1997. An Archaeology of the Soul. Urbana (IL): University of Illinois Press.Google Scholar
Hill, J.N., 1966. A prehistoric community in Eastern Arizona. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 22, 9–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holley, G.R., 1989. The Archaeology of the Cahokia Mounds ICT-II: Ceramics. (Illinois Cultural Resources Study 11.) Springfield (IL): Illinois Historic Preservation Agency.Google Scholar
Holmes, W.H., 1903. Aboriginal Pottery of the Eastern United States. (Twentieth Annual Report.) Washington (DC): Bureau of American Ethnology.Google Scholar
Hough, W., 1960. Dyes and pigments, in Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico, vol. I. New York (NY): Pageant Books, 407–9. [Originally published as Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 30 (1907–1910).]Google Scholar
Howard, J.H., 1968. The Southeastern Ceremonial Complex and its Interpretation. (Memoir of the Missouri Archaeological Society 6.) Columbia (MO): Missouri Archaeological Society.Google Scholar
Howard, J.H., 1995. The Ponca Tribe. Lincoln (NE): University of Nebraska Press. [Originally published as Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 195 (1965).]Google Scholar
Jones, J., 1876. Explorations of the Aboriginal Remains of Tennessee. (Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge 259.) Washington (DC): Smithsonian Institution.Google Scholar
Kehoe, A.B., 1997. Consorting with Power, Weaving Community. Unpublished paper presented to the Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, Nashville (TN).Google Scholar
Kehoe, A.B., 1998. The Land of Prehistory: a Critical History of American Archaeology. London & New York (NY): Routledge.Google Scholar
Kelly, R.C., 1993. Constructing Inequality: the Fabrication of Hierarchy of Virtue among the Etoro. Ann Arbor (MI): University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Knight, V.J. Jr, 1998. Moundville as a diagrammatic ceremonial center, in Archaeology of the Moundville Chiefdom, eds. Knight, V.J. Jr & Steponaitis, V.P.. Washington (DC): Smithsonian Institution Press, 44–62.Google Scholar
Kristiansen, K., 1998. Europe Before History: the European World System in the 2nd millennium BC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Lekson, S.H., 1999. The Giaco Meridian. Centers of Political Power in the Ancient Southwest. Walnut Creek (CA): Al ta mira Press.Google Scholar
Lightfoot, K.G. & Martinez, A., 1995. Frontiers and boundaries in archaeological perspective. Annual Review of Anthropology 24, 471–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lightfoot, K.G., Martinez, A. & Schiff, A.M., 1998. Daily practice and material culture in pluralistic social settings: an archeological study of culture change and persistence from Fort Ross, California. American Antiquity 63, 199–222.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lyman, R.L., O'Brien, M.J. & Dunnell, R.C., 1997. The Rise and Fall of Cultural History. New York (NY): Plenum.Google Scholar
McGregor, J.C., 1958. The Pool and Irving Villages. Urbana (IL): University of Illinois Press.Google Scholar
Mann, M., 1986. The Sources of Social Power. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mehrer, M.W., 1995. Cahokia's Countryside: Household Archaeology, Settlement Patterns, and Social Power. DeKalb (IL): Northern Illinois University Press.Google Scholar
Mehrer, M.W. & Collins, J.M., 1995. Household archaeology at Cahokia and in its hinterlands, in Mississippian Communities and Households, eds. Rogers, D. & Smith, B.D.. Tuscaloosa (AL): University of Alabama Press, 32–57.Google Scholar
Miller, J., 1974. Kokopelli, in Collected Papers in Honor of Florence Hawley Ellis, ed. Frisbee, T.R.. Santa Fe (NM): Archaeological Society of New Mexico, 371–80.Google Scholar
Milner, G.R., 1990. The late prehistoric Cahokia cultural system of the Mississippi River Valley: foundations, florescence, and fragmentation. Journal of World Prehistory 4(1), 1–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Milnerx, G.R., 1998. The Cahokia Chiefdom: the Archaeology of a Mississippian Society. Washington (DC): Smithsonian Institution Press.Google Scholar
Milner, G.R., Emerson, T.E., Mehrer, M.W., Williams, J.A. & Esarey, D., 1984. Mississippian and Oneota period, in Bareis, & Porter, (eds.), 158–86.Google Scholar
Muller, J., 1997. Mississippian Political Economy. New York (NY): Plenum Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O'Brien, P., 1989. Cahokia: the political capital of the ‘Ramey’ state? North American Arcliaeologist 10(4), 275–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O'Brien, P., 1993. Cultural taxonomy, cross-cultural types, and Cahokia, in Highways to the Past: Essays on Illinois Archaeology in Honor of Charles J. Bareis, eds. Emerson, T., Fortier, A. & McElrath, D.. Illinois Archaeology 5(1&2), 481–97.Google Scholar
Openshaw, S., 1983. The Modifiable Areal Unit Problem. (Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography no. 38.) Norwich (England): Geo Books.Google Scholar
Pauketat, T.R., 1989. Monitoring Mississippian homestead occupation span and economy using ceramic refuse. American Antiquity 54, 288–310.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pauketat, T.R., 1992. The reign and ruin of the lords of Cahokia: a dialectic of dominance, in Barker, & Pauketat, (eds.), 31–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pauketat, T.R., 1994. The Ascent of Chiefs: Cahokia and Mississippian Politics in Native North America. Tuscaloosa (AL): University of Alabama Press.Google Scholar
Pauketat, T., 1996. Resettled Rural Communities at the Edge of Early Cahokia. Paper presented at the 53rd Annual Southeastern Archaeological Conference, Birmingham.Google Scholar
Pauketat, T.R., 1997a. Cahokian Political Economy, in Pauketat, & Emerson, (eds.), 30–51.Google Scholar
Pauketat, T.R., 1997b. Specialization, political symbols, and the craft élite of Cahokia. Southeastern Archaeology 16(1), 1–15.Google Scholar
Pauketat, T.R., 1998. Refiguring the archaeology of Greater Cahokia. Journal of Archaeological Research 6, 45–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pauketat, T.R., 1999a. The Archaeology of Downtown Cahokia. (Studies in Archaeology 1.) Urbana (IL): Illinois Transportation Archaeological Research Program, University of Illinois.Google Scholar
Pauketat, T.R. 1999b. America's ancient warriors. The Quarterly Journal of Military History 11, 50–55.Google Scholar
Pauketat, T.R. & Emerson, T.E., 1991. The ideology of authority and the power of the pot. American Anthropologist 93, 919–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pauketat, T.R. & Emerson, T.E. (eds.), 1997. Cahokia: Domination and Ideology in the Mississippian World. Lincoln (NE): University of Nebraska Press.Google Scholar
Pauketat, T.R. & Emerson, T.E., 1999. The representation of hegemony as community at Cahokia, in Material Symbols: Culture and Economy in Prehistory, ed. Robb, J.E.. (Occasional Paper 26.) Carbondale (IL): Center for Archaeological Investigations, Southern Illinois University, 302–17.Google Scholar
Perino, G.H., 1971. The Mississippian component at the Schild site (No. 4), Greene County, Illinois, in Mississippian Archaeology in Illinois, vol. I. (Illinois Archaeological Survey Bulletin 8.) Urbana (IL): University of Illinois, 1–149.Google Scholar
Prentice, G., 1986. An analysis of symbolism expressed by the Birger figurine. American Antiquity 51, 239–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Radin, P., 1970. The Winnebago Tribe. Lincoln (NE): University of Nebraska Press. [Originally published as 37th Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, 1916, Washington (DC).]Google Scholar
Roe, P.G., 1997. Just wasting away: Taíno shamanism and concepts of fertility, in Taíno: Pre-Columbian Art and Culture from the Caribbean, eds. Bercht, F., Brodsky, E., Farmer, J.A. & Taylor, D.. New York (NY): The Monacelli Press, 124–57.Google Scholar
Saitta, D.J., 1994. Agency, class, and archaeological interpretation. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 13, 201–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sarmiento de Gamboa, P., 1999. History of the Incas. Mineola (NY): Dover Publications.Google Scholar
Shanks, M. & Tilley, C., 1987. Social Theory and Archaeology. Albuquerque (NM): University of New Mexico Press.Google Scholar
Shennan, S.J., 1993. After social evolution: a new archaeological agenda?, in Archaeological Theory: Who Sets the Agenda?, eds. Yoffee, N. & Sherratt, A.. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 53–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, B.D., 1978. Mississippian Settlement Patterns. New York (NY): Academic Press.Google Scholar
Snow, D., 1976. The Archaeology of North America: London: Thames & Hudson.Google Scholar
Stoltman, J.B. (ed.), 1991. New Perspectives on Cahokia: Views from the Periphery. Madison (WI): Prehistory Press.Google Scholar
Trigger, B.G., 1990. Monumental architecture: a thermodynamic explanation of symbolic behaviour. World Archaeology 22, 119–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trigger, B.G., 1999. Reconnoitring religion. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 9(1), 139–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tschauner, H., 1994. Archaeological systematics and cultural evolution: retrieving the honour of culture history. Man 29, 77–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
VanPool, C.S. & VanPool, T.L., 1999. The scientific nature of postprocessualism. American Antiquity 64, 33–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Voegelin, C.F., 1936. The Shawnee Female Deity. (Publications in Anthropology 10.) New Haven (CT): Yale University.Google Scholar
Voegelin, C.F. & Voegelin, E.W., 1944. The Shawnee female deity in historical perspective. American Anthropologist 46, 370–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Watson, P.J., 1991. A parochial primer: the dissonance as seen from the midcontinental United States, in Processual and Postprocessual Archaeologies, ed. Preucel, R.W.. (Occasional Paper 10.) Carbondale (IL): Center for Archaeological Investigations, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, 265–74.Google Scholar
White, L.A., 1949. The Science of Culture. New York (NY): Farrar, Straus & Giroux.Google Scholar
Whittle, A., 1997. Sacred Mound, Holy Rings. Silbury Hill and the West Kennet Palisade Enclosures: a Later Neolithic Complex in North Wiltshire. Oxford: Oxbow.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Will, G.F. & Hyde, G.E., 1964. Corn among the Indians of the Upper Missouri. Lincoln (NE): University of Nebraska Press. [Originally published 1917.]Google Scholar
Willey, G.R. & Phillips, P., 1958. Method and Theory in American Archaeology. Chicago (IL): University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Wittry, W.L., 1969. The American Woodhenge, in Explorations into Cahokia Archaeology, ed. Fowler, M.. (Illinois Archaeological Survey Bulletin 7.) Urbana (IL): University of Illinois, 43–8.Google Scholar