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The Long Road to Sainthood: Indian Christians, the Doctrine of Preparation, and the Halfway Covenant of 1662

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 May 2020

Gregory Michna
Gregory Michna*
Affiliation:
Assistant Professor of History at Arkansas Tech University
*
*Corresponding author. E-mail: gmichna@atu.edu
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Abstract

This essay explores the origins and expansion of New England Praying Towns in the context of the ongoing theological and religious debates of 1646–1674. This period spawned significant debates regarding the extent of the Abrahamic covenant, the requirements for church membership, and the nature of conversion. The ministers present at the Synod of 1662 gathered to settle the question of “extended baptism,” an issue where Indian and English concerns intersected. Reformers who promoted a generational vision of church membership emphasized the efficacy of spiritual preparation for younger generations and the power of a broader and more inclusive church covenant. This development benefitted Algonquians living in Praying Towns because theological preparation validated efforts to catechize and instruct Praying Indians in religious matters. Likewise, a broadening vision of church membership enabled some colonists to consider the possibility that Indians might be included within their religious communities. These projects, launched before the formalization of the Halfway Covenant in 1662, presented a tangible example of spiritual preparation in practice and served to validate the conversionary process within the colony at large. English observers found Indian conversion impressive (or reacted with intense skepticism) because most theologians considered Indians unlikely converts, especially in larger numbers. For Algonquians demonstrating an interest in English spirituality, church membership represented a degree of parity with their New England brethren. Tracing the development of New England missions, the pathway to church membership, and the debates on both missions and extended baptism reveals both the possibilities and limits to the inclusion of Indian Christians within New England's religious institutions.

Keywords

Praying IndiansIndian ChristiansDoctrine of PreparationconversionNew England missions
Type
Articles
Information
Church History , Volume 89 , Issue 1 , March 2020 , pp. 43 - 73
Copyright
Copyright © American Society of Church History, 2020

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81 Shepard, Church Membership of Children, 12–13; and Michael McGiffert, God's Plot: Puritan Spirituality in Thomas Shepard's Cambridge, rev. ed. (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1994), 10–19.

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87 Breen, “Praying with the Enemy,” 106–107.

88 John Oxenbridge, A Seasonable Proposition of Propagating the Gospel by Christian Colonies in the Continent of Guaiana: Being some gleanings of a larger Discourse drawn, but not published (London, 1670).

89 William Durrant Cooper, “The Oxenbridges of Brede Place, Sussex, and Boston Massachusetts,” in Sussex Archaeological Collections: Relating to the History and Antiquities of the County (London: John Russell Smith, 1860), 12:219.

90 Topically, each chapter examines prophecies drawn from a particular part of the Bible: Chapter 2 concerns Mosaic prophecies, chapters 3 and 4 Psalms, chapter 5 Isaiah and Song of Solomon, chapter 6 looks at the remainder of Isaiah, chapter 7 the remainder of the Old Testament prophets, and chapter 8 gives New Testament conversionary examples. This concern for continuity with the Old Testament also appeared in arguments favoring extended baptism by highlighting the Abrahamic covenant. Scobey, “Revising the Errand,” 16–17.

91 John Oxenbridge, “Conversion of the Gentiles, ca. 1670,” Ms. Sbd-56, pp. 11, 13, Massachusetts Historical Society, Boston.

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93 Oxenbridge, “Conversion of the Gentiles,” 70–71.

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95 Breen, “Praying with the Enemy,” 104–109. Breen suggests that opposition to the Halfway Covenant may have stemmed from Gookin's promotion of the practice with Indians. I intend to offer more concrete proof that this was the case through the earlier examples from oppositional pamphlets. Katherine Gerbner's analysis of Jonathan Mitchel's implementation of extended baptism at Cambridge similarly asserts that his principle application of the doctrine was to “expand the reach of the church to unchurched families in the community”: Gerbner, “Beyond the ‘Halfway Covenant,’” 283.

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99 Gookin, Historical collections, 45; and Cogley, John Eliot's Mission, 142–143.

100 Gookin, Historical collections, 29.

101 Gookin, Historical collections, 42.

102 Cogley, John Eliot's Mission, 170.

103 Ford, Some Correspondence Between the Governors and Treasurers, 38.

104 Ford, Some Correspondence Between the Governors and Treasurers, 32–33.

105 Fisher, Lemons, and Mason-Brown, Decoding Roger Williams, 38, 163–167.

106 For more on Stoddard and the impact of the open table policy on Native Americans, see Gregory A. Michna, “A Communion of Churches: Indian Christians, English Ministers, and Congregations in New England, 1600–1775” (PhD diss., West Virginia University, 2016), 236–261.

107 Goetz, Baptism of Early Virginia, 1–12, 22–29, 86–92; Laura M. Stevens, The Poor Indians: British Missionaries, Native Americans, and Colonial Sensibility (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004), 162–173; Mandell, Daniel R., Behind the Frontier: Indians in Eighteenth-Century Eastern Massachusetts (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1996), 5–7Google Scholar, 24–30; and O'Brien, Jean M., Dispossession by Degrees: Indian Land and Identity in Natick, Massachusetts, 1650–1790 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 4–12CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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109 Eliot, “Letter of the Reverend John Eliot,” 1–2; and Ford, Some Correspondence Between the Governors and Treasurers, 39–40.

110 Cotton Mather, India Christiana (Boston: B. Green, 1721), 39; Mandell, Behind the Frontier, 59–60; and Fisher, Linford D., “Native Americans, Conversion, and Christian Practice in Colonial New England, 1640–1730,” Harvard Theological Review 102, no. 1 (January 2009): 110–111CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 122–123.

111 Anderson, Benedict, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, rev. ed. (London: Verso, 2006), 6–7Google Scholar, 12–19.