Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gbm5v Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-25T17:32:00.113Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

On Categorizing Gestational, Birth, and Neonatal Complications Following Late Pregnancy Exposure to Antidepressants: The Prenatal Antidepressant Exposure Syndrome

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 November 2014

Salvatore Gentile
Salvatore Gentile*
Affiliation:
ASL SalernoItaly
*
Dr. Salvatore Gentile, Department of Mental Health ASL Salerno, Mental Health Center 63 Cava de' Tirreni - Amalfi Coast, Piazza Galdi, 84013 Cava de' Tirreni (Salerno), Italy; Tel: 39-089-4455439, Fax, 39-0894455440; e-mail:, salvatore_gentile@alice.it.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Introduction: Late in utero exposure to antidepressants has been suspected of adversely impacting pregnancy outcome and compromising neonatal adaptation. Hence, the necessity exists to analyze published information on antidepressant use during late pregnancy to individuate potential recurrent patterns of iatrogenic complications.

Methods: Computerized searches on MEDLINE, PsyclNFO, ENBASE, and Cochrane Library through February 10, 2010 were performed for selecting literature information and investigating the safety of antidepressants when used during late pregnancy.

Results: Antidepressant treatment during late pregnancy may increase the rates of poor pregnancy outcome and neonatal withdrawal/ toxic reactions.

Conclusions: Because both gestational complications and neonatal adverse events acknowledge the same etiology, the author suggests including such iatrogenic events under the definition of prenatal antidepressant exposure syndrome, in order to increase clinicians' awareness about the spectrum of risks which may concern the mother-infant pair when antidepressant treatment is deemed indispensable during late pregnancy.

Type
Review Article
Information
CNS Spectrums , Volume 15 , Issue 3 , March 2010 , pp. 167 - 185
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2010

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

1.Sundström, IM, Bixio, M, Björn, I, Aström, M. Prevalence of psychiatric disorders in gynaecologic outpatients. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2001;184:8–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
2.Gentile, S. The safety of newer antidepressants in pregnancy and breastfeeding. Drug Saf. 2005;28:137–152.Google Scholar
3.Dietz, PM, Williams, SB, Callaghan, WM, Bachman, DJ, Whitlock, EP, Horbrook, MC. Clinically Identified maternal depression before, during, and after pregnancies ending In live births. Am J Psychiatry. 2007;164:1515–1520.Google Scholar
4.Marcus, SM, Flynn, HA, Blow, FC, Barry, KL. Depressive symptoms among pregnancy women screened in obstetric settings. J Women's Health. 2003;12:373–380.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
5.Marcus, SM, Flynn, HA, Blow, F, Barry, KL. A screening study of antidepressant treatment rates and mood symptoms In pregnancy. Arch Women's Ment Health. 2005;8:25–27.Google Scholar
6.Bennett, HA, Einarson, A, Taddio, A, Koren, G, Einarson, TR. Prevalence of depression during pregnancy: systematic review. Obstet Gynecol. 2004;103:698–709.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
7.Newport, DJ, Wilcox, MM, Stowe, ZN. Antidepressants during pregnancy and lactation: defining exposure and treatment issues. Semin Perinatal. 2001;25:177–190.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
8.Halbreich, U. Prevalence of mood symptoms and depression during pregnancy: implications for clinical practice and research. CNS Spectr. 2004;9:177–184.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
9.Barnet, B. Liu, J, DeVoe, M. Double jeopardy. Depressive symptoms and rapid subsequent pregnancy in adolescent mothers. Arch Fed Adolesc Med. 2008;162:246–252.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
10.Weissman, MM, Wickramaratne, P. Nomura, Y, et al.Familles at high and low risk for depression: a 3-generatlon study. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2005;62:29–36.Google Scholar
11.Diego, MA, Field, T, Hernandez-Reif, M, Cufien, C, Schanberg, S, Kuhn, C. Prepartum, postpartum, and chronic depression effects on newborns. Psychiatry. 2004;67:63–80.Google Scholar
12.Dayan, J, Creveuil, C, Marks, MN, et al.Prenatal depression, prenatal anxiety, and spontaneous preterm birth: a prospective cohort study among women with early and regular care. Psychosom Med. 2006;68:938–946.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
13.Andersson, L, Sundstrom-Poroma, I, Wulff, M, Astrom, M, Bixo, M. Implication of antenatal depression and anxiety for obstetric outcome. Obstet Gynecol. 2004; 104:467–476.Google Scholar
14.Bonari, L, Pinto, N. Ahn, E, Einarson, A, Steiner, M, Koren, G. Perinatal risks of untreated depression during pregnancy. Can J Psychiatry. 2004;49:726–735.Google Scholar
15.Gentile, S. Schizoaffective disorder in women with childbearing potential: focus on treatment with newer and emerging mood stabilizers. In: Murray, WH ed. Schizoaffective Disorder: New research. New York, NY: Nova Science Publishers; 2006:187–220.Google Scholar
16.Gentile, S. More than half of women with a history of psychosis have a psychiatric episode in the first year after childbirth [Commentary]. Evidence-Based Mental Health. 2005;8:33.Google Scholar
17.Andrade, SE, Raebel, MA, Brown, J, et al.Use of antidepressant medications during pregnancy: a multisite study. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2007;198:194.e1-e5.Google ScholarPubMed
18.Cohen, LS. Altshuler, LL, Harlow, BL, et al.Relapse of major depression during pregnancy in women who maintain or discontinue antidepressant treatment. JAMA 2006;295:499–507.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
19.Anderson, GM, Czarkowski, K, Ravski, N, Epperson, CL. Platelet serotonin In newborns and infants: ontogeny, heritability, and effect of in utero exposure to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. Pediatr Res. 2004;56:418–422.Google Scholar
20.Pawluski, JL, Galea, LA, Brain, U, Papsdorf, M, Oberlander, TF. Neonatal S100B protein levels after prenatal exposure to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. Pediatrics. 2009;124:e662–e670.Google Scholar
21.Emory, EK, Dieter, JNI. Maternal depression and psychotropic medication effects on the human fetus. Ann NY Acad Sci. 2006; 1094:287–291.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
22.Loughhead, AM, Fisher, AD, Newport, DJ, et al.Antidepressants In amniotic fluid: another route of fetal exposure. Am J Psychiatry 2006;163:145–147.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
23. GlaxoSmithKline. Important information for prescribers about paroxetine and pregnancy. Available at: http://www.gsk.com/medla/paroxetine_pregnancy.pdf. Accessed: May 26.2008.Google Scholar
24.Källén, B, Olausson, PO. Antidepressant drugs during pregnancy and infant congenital hearth defect [Letter]. Repr Toxicol. 2006;21:221–222.Google Scholar
25.Alwan, S, Reefhuis, J, Rasmussen, S, Onley, R, Friedman, JM. Use of selective serotonin-reuptake inhibitors in pregnancy and the risk of birth defects. New Engl J Med. 2007;365:2675–2683.Google Scholar
26.Louik, C, Lin, AE, Werler, MM. Hernández-Diaz, S. Mitchell, AA. First-trimester use of selective-serotonin reuptake inhibitors and the risk of birth defects. New Engl J Med. 2007;365:2684–2692.Google Scholar
27.Oberlander, TF. Warburton, W. Misri, S, Riggs, W, Agajanian, J, Hertzman, C. Major congenital malformations following prenatal exposure to serotonin reuptake inhibitors and benzodiazepines using population-based health data. Birth Def Res B Dev Reprod Toxicol. 2008;83:68–76.Google Scholar
28.Einarson, A, Pistelli, A, DeSantis, M, et al.Evaluation of the risk of congenital cardiovascular defects associated with use of paroxetine during pregnancy. Am J Psychiatry. 2008;165:749–752.Google Scholar
29.Gentile, S, Bellantuono, C. SSRI-exposure during early pregnancy and the risk of fetal major malformations. Focus on paroxetine. J Clin Psychiatry. 2009;70:414–422.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
30.Wogelius, P, Nørgaard, M, Gislum, M, et al.Maternal use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and risk of congenital malformations. Epidemiology. 2006;17(6):701–704.Google Scholar
31. US Food and Drug Authority. FDA Medwatch drug alert on Effexor and SSRIs. 2004, Jun 3. Available at: www.fda.gov/MEDWATCH/SAFETY/2004/efexxor_dear_hcpjune.pdf. Accessed: April 13, 2008.Google Scholar
32. Health Canada. Health Canada advises of potential serious adverse effects of SSRIs and other antidepressants on newborns [advisory]. Ottawa: Health Canada, August 2004. Available at: http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ahc-asc/media/advisories-avis/_2004/2004_44_e.html. Accessed: April 13,2008.Google Scholar
33.Levin, R. Neonatal adverse events associated with in utero SSRI/SNRI exposure. Available at: www.fda.gov/ohrms/dockets/AC/04/slides/2004-4050S1_11_Levln.ppt. Accessed February 15,2008.Google Scholar
34.Gentile, S. SRI-induced perinatal complications. Paediatr Drugs. 2007;9:97–106.Google Scholar
35.Ververs, T. Kaasenbrood, H, Visser, G. Schobben, F, de Jong-van den Berg, L, Egberts, T. Prevalence and patterns of antidepressant drug use during pregnancy. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2006;62:863–870.Google Scholar
36.Austin, MRTo treat or not to treat: maternal depression. SSRI use in pregnancy and adverse neonatal effects. Psychol Med. 2006;36:1663–1670.Google Scholar
37.Chambers, CD, Johnson, KA, Dick, LM, Felix, RJ, Jones, KL. Birth outcomes in pregnant women taking fluoxetine. N Engl J Med. 1996;335:1010–1015.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
38.Anbu, AT, Theodore, A. Fluoxetine withdrawal syndrome in the newborn. Ind Pediatr. 2006;43:66–68.Google Scholar
39.Alehan, F, Saygu, S, Tartan, A, Gurakan, B. Prolonged neonatal complications after in utero exposure to fluoxetine. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2008;21:921–923.Google Scholar
40.Lavenstein, BL, Smith, Y, Latimer, E. Neonatal fluoxetine withdrawal secondary to maternal use during pregnancy [Abstract]. Ann Neurol. 2003;54(suppl 7):S127.Google Scholar
41.Goldstein, DJ. Effects of third trimester fluoxetine exposure on the newborn. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1995;15:417–420.Google Scholar
42.Dahi, ML, Olhager, E, Ahlner, J. Paroxetine withdrawal syndrome in a neonate. Br J Psychiatry. 1997;171:391–392.Google Scholar
43.Nijhuls, IJ, KoK-Van RooiJ, GWM, Bosschaart, ANWithdrawal reactions of a premature neonate after maternal use of paroxetine [Letter]. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2001;84:F77.Google Scholar
44.Murray, KL, Miller, KM, Pearson, DL. Neonatal withdrawal syndrome following in utero exposure to paroxetine, clonazepam and olanzapine. J Perinatal. 2007;27:517–518.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
45.Ahmed, M, Parameshwaran, A, Swamy, P. Neonatal convulsions secondary to paroxetine withdrawal [Letter]. J Pak Med Ass. 2007;57:162.Google ScholarPubMed
46.Nordeng, H, Lindemann, R, Perminov, KV, Reikvam, Å. Neonatal withdrawal syndrome after in utero exposure to selective reuptake inhibitors. Acta Paediatr. 2001;90:288–291.Google Scholar
47.Stiskal, JA, Kulln, N, Koren, G, Ho, T, Ito, S. Neonatal paroxetine withdrawal syndrome. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2001;84:F134–F135.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
48.Costei, AM, Kozer, E, Ho, T, Ito, S, Koren, G. Perinatal outcome following third trimester exposure to paroxetine. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2002;156:1129–1132.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
49.Levinson-Castiel, R, Merlob, R, Linder, N, Sirota, L, Klinger, D. Neonatal abstinence syndrome after in utero exposure to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors in term infants. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2006;160:173–176.Google Scholar
50.Oberlander, TF, Misri, S, Fitzgerald, CE, Kostaras, X, Rurak, D, Riggs, W. Pharmacological factors associated with transient neonatal symptoms following prenatal psychotropic medication exposure. J Clin Psychiatry. 2004;65:230–237.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
51.Sivojelezova, A, Shuhaiber, S, Sarkissian, L, Einarson, A, Koren, G. Citalopram use in pregnancy: prospective comparative evaluation of pregnancy and fetal outcome. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2005;193:2004–2009.Google Scholar
52.Kwon, P, Leftewitz, W. Neonatal extrapyramidal movements. Neonatal withdrawal due to maternal Citalopram and ondansetron use. Red Ann. 2008;37:128–130.Google Scholar
53.Heikkinen, T, Ekblad, U, Kero, P, Ekblad, S, Laine, K. Citalopram in pregnancy and lactation. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2002;72:184–191.Google Scholar
54.Potts, AL, Young, KL, Carter, BS, Shenai, JP. Necrotizing enterocolitis associated with in utero and breast milk exposure to the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor, escitalo-pram. J Perinatal. 2007;27:120–122.Google Scholar
55.Gentile, S. Quetiapine-fluvoxamine combination during pregnancy and while breastfeeding. Arch Women's Ment Health. 2006;9:158–159.Google Scholar
56.Kent, LS, Laidlaw, JDD. Suspected congenital sertraline dependence. Br J Psychiatry. 1995;167:412–413.Google Scholar
57.Koren, G, Moretti, M, Kapur, B. Can venlafaxine in breast milk attenuate the norepinephrine and serotonin reuptake neonatal withdrawal syndrome? J Obstet Gynaecol Can. 2006;28:299–301.Google Scholar
58.Klier, CM, Mossaheb, N, Saria, A, Schloegelhofer, M, Zernig, G. Pharmacokinetics and elimination of quetiapine, venlafaxine, and trazodone during pregnancy and postpartum [Letter]. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2007;27:720–721.Google Scholar
59.Boucher, N. Foren, G, Beaulac-Baillergeon, L. Maternal use of venlafaxine near term: correlation between neonatal effects and plasma concentrations. Ther Drug Monit. 2009;31:404–409.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
60.Rampono, J, Simmer, K, llett, KF, et al.Placental transfer of SSRI and SNRI antidepressants and effects on neonate. Pharmacopsychiatry. 2009;42:95–100.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
61.Treichel, M, Schwendener, K, Kessler, U, Joeris, A, Nelle, T. Is there a correlation between venlafaxine therapy during pregnancy and a higher incidence of necrotizing enterocolitis? World J Pediatr. 2009;15:65–67.Google Scholar
62.Pakalapati, RK, Bolisetti, S, Austin, MP, Oei, J. Neonatal seizure from in utero venlafaxine exposure. J Pediatr Child Health. 2006;42:737–738.Google Scholar
63.Eyal, R, Yaeger, D. Poor neonatal adaptation after in utero exposure to duloxetine [Letter]. Am J Psychiatry. 2008; 165:651.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
64.Sanz, EJ, De-las-Cuevas, C, Kiuru, A, Bate, A, Edwards, R. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors in pregnant women and neonatal withdrawal syndrome: a database analysis. Lancet. 2005;365:482–487.Google Scholar
65.Moses-Kolko, EL, Bogen, D, Perel, J, et al.Neonatal signs after late in utero exposure to serotonin reuptake inhibitors. Literature review and implications for clinical applications. JAMA. 2005;18:2372–2382.Google Scholar
66.Ferriera, E, Carcellier, AM, Agogué, C, et al.Effects of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and venlafaxine during pregnancy in term and preterm neonates. Pediatrics. 2007;119:52–59.Google Scholar
67.Wen, SW, Yang, Q, Garner, P, et al.Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and adverse pregnancy outcomes. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2006;194:961–966.Google Scholar
68.Boucher, N, Bairam, A, Beaulac-Baillargeon L, . A new look at the neonate's clinical presentation after in utero exposure to antidepressants in late pregnancy. J Clin Psychopharm. 2008;28:334–339.Google Scholar
69.Jordan, AE, Jackson, GL, Deardoff, D, Shivakumar, G, Mclntire, DD, Dashe, JS. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor use in pregnancy and the neonatal behavioral syndrome. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2008;21:745–751.Google Scholar
70.Galbally, M, Lewis, AJ, Lum, J, Buist, A. Serotonin discontinuation syndrome following in utero exposure to antidepressant medication: prospective controlled study. Austr NZ J Psychiatry. 2009;43:846–854.Google Scholar
71.Hendrick, V, Stowe, ZN, Altshuler, LL, Hwang, S, Lee, E, Haynes, D. Placental passage of antidepressant medication. Am J Psychiatry. 2003;160:993–996.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
72.Eggermont, E, Raveschot, J, Deneve, V, Casteels-Van Daele, M. The adverse influence of imipramine on the adaptation of the newborn infant to extrauterine life. Acta Paediatr Belg. 1972;26:197–204.Google Scholar
73.Eggermont, E. Withdrawal symptoms in neonates associated with maternal Imipramine therapy [Letter]. Lancet. 1973;2:680.Google Scholar
74.Webster, PA. Withdrawal symptoms in neonates associated with maternal antidepressant therapy [Letter]. Lancet. 1373;8:318–319.Google Scholar
75.Breyer-Pfaff, U, Karl, N, Entermann, A, Gaertner, HJ. Secretion of amitriptyline and metabolites into breast milk. Am J Psychiatry. 1995;152:812–813.Google Scholar
76.Shearer, WT, Schreiner, RL, Marshall, RE. Urinary retention in a neonate secondary to maternal ingestion of nortriptyline. J Pediatr. 1972;81:570–572.Google Scholar
77.Schimmell, MS, Zylber Katz, E, Shaag, Y, Pastuszac, A, Koren, G. Toxic neonatal effects following maternal clorimipramine therapy. Clin Toxicol. 1991;29:479–484.Google Scholar
78.Ben Musa, A, Smith, CS. Neonatal effects of maternal clorimipramine therapy [Letter]. Arch Dis Child. 1979;29:405.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
79.Cowe, L, Lloyd, DJ, Dawling, S. Neonatal convulsions caused by withdrawal from maternal clorimipramine. Br Med J. 1982;284:1837–1838.Google Scholar
80.Østergaard, GZ, Pedersen, SE. Neonatal effects of maternal clorimipramine therapy. Pediatrics. 1982;69:233–234.Google Scholar
81.Singh, S, Gulati, S, Narang, A, Bhakoo, ON. Non-narcotic withdrawal syndrome In a neonate due to maternal clorimipramine therapy [Letter]. J Paediatr Child Health. 1990:26:110.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
82.Bromiker, R, Kaplan, M. Apparent intrauterine fetal withdrawal from clorimipramine hydrochloride [Letter]. JAMA. 1994;272:1722–1723.Google Scholar
83.Bloem, BR, Lammers, GJ, Roofhooft, DWE, De Beaufort, AJ, Brouwer, OF. Clorimipramine withdrawal in newborns [Letter]. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 1999;81:F77–F79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
84.Misri, S, Sivertz, K. Tryciclic drugs in pregnancy and lactation: a preliminary report. Int J Psychiatr Med. 1991;21:157–171.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
85.Källén, B. Neonate characteristics after maternal use of antidepressants in late pregnancy. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2004;158:312–316.Google Scholar
86.Davis, RL, Rubanowice, D, McPhillips, H, et al.Risks of congenital malformations and perinatal events among infant exposed to antidepressant medications during pregnancy. Pharmacoepidemlol Drug Saf. 2007;16:1086–1094.Google Scholar
87.Lennestål, R, Källen, B. Delivery outcome in relation to maternal use of some recently introduced antidepressants. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2007;27:607–613.Google Scholar
88.Maschi, S, Clavenna, A, Campi, A, Schiavetti, B, Bernat, M, Bonati, M. Neonatal outcome following pregnancy exposure to antidepressants: a prospective, controlled study. BJOG. 2007; 115:283–289.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
89.Abebe-Campino, A. Cardiac arrhythmia in a newborn associated with fluoxetine use during pregnancy [Letter]. Ann Pharmacother. 2002;36:533–534.Google Scholar
90.Dubnov, G, Fogelman, R, Merlob, P. Prolonged QT interval in an infant of a fluoxetine treated mother. Arch Dis Child. 2005;90:972–973.Google Scholar
91.Dubnov-Raz, G, Juurink, DN, Fogelman, R, et al.Antenatal use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and QT interval prolongation in newborns. Pediatrics. 2008;122: e710–e715.Google Scholar
92.Mhanna, MJ, Bennet II, JB, Izatt, SD. Potential fluoxetine chloride (Prozac) toxicity in a newborn. Pediatrics. 1997;100:158–159.Google Scholar
93.Spencer, MJ. Fluoxetine hydrochloride (Prozac) toxicity in a neonate. Pediatrics. 1993;92:721–722.Google Scholar
94.Mohan, CG, Moore, JJ. Fluoxetine toxicity in a preterm infant. J Perinatol. 2000;20:445–446.Google Scholar
95.Kwon, P. Lefkowitz, W. Poor neonatal adaptation in term infants. Fluoxetine toxicity. Ped Ann. 2008;37:131–133.Google Scholar
96.Rampono, J, Proud, S, Hackett, LRKristensen, JH. A pilot study of newer antidepressant concentrations in cord and maternal serum and possible effects in the neonate. Int J Clin Neuropsychopharmacol. 2004;7:329–324.Google Scholar
97.Laine, K, Heikkinen, T. Ekblad, U. Kero, P. Effects of exposure to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors during pregnancy on serotoninergic symptoms in newborns and cord blood monoamine and prolactin concentrations. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2003;60:720–726.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
98.Duijvestijn, YC, Kalmeijer, MD, Passier, AL, Dahlem, P, Smiers, F. Neonatal intraventricular haemorrhage associated with maternal use of paroxetine. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2003;56:581–582.Google Scholar
99.Morag, I, Batash, D, Keidar, R, Bulkowstein, M, Heyman, E. Paroxetine use throughout pregnancy: does it pose any risk to the neonate? J Toxicol Clin Toxicol. 2004;42:97–100.Google Scholar
100.Knoppert, DC, Nimkar, R, Principi, T, Yuen, D. Paroxetine toxicity in a newborn after in utero exposure. Clinical symptoms correlate with serum levels. Ther Drug Monitor. 2006;28:5–7.Google Scholar
101.Laine, K, Kytölä, J, Bertlsson, L. Severe adverse effects in a newborn with two defective CYP2D6 alleles after exposure to paroxetine during late pregnancy. Ther Drug Monitor 2004;26:685–687.Google Scholar
102.Haddad, PM, Pal, BR, Clarke, P, Sridhiran, S. Neonatal symptoms following maternal paroxetine treatment: serotonin toxicity or paroxetine discontinuation syndrome? J Psychopharmacol. 2005; 9:554–557.Google Scholar
103.Vanhaesebrouck, P, De Bock, F, Zecic, A, et al.Phototherapy-mediated syndrome of inappropriate secretion of antidiuretic hormone in an in utero selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor-exposed infant. Pediatrics. 2005;115:e508–e511.Google Scholar
104.Anderson, IK, Martin, GR, Ramage, AG. Central administration of 5-HT activates 5-HT1A receptors to cause sympathoexcitation and 5-HT2/5-HT1C receptors to release vasopressin in anaesthetized rats. Br J Pharmacol. 2002;107:1020–1028.Google Scholar
105.Sokolover, N, Merlob, P, Klinger, G. Neonatal recurrent prolonged hypothermia associated with maternal mirtazapine treatment during pregnancy. Can J Clin Pharmacol. 2008;15:e188–e190.Google Scholar
106.Oberlander, TE, Grunau, RE, Fitzgerald, CE, Papsdorf, M, Rurak, D, Riggs, W. Pain reactivity in 2-month-old infants after prenatal and postnatal serotonin reuptake inhibitor medication exposure. Pediatrics. 2005;115:411–425.Google Scholar
107.Hains, BC, Everhart, AW, Fullwood, SD, Hulsebosch, CE. Changes in serotonin, serotonin transporter expression, and serotonin denervation supersensitivity: involvement in chronic central pain after spinal hemisection in the rat. Exp Neurol. 2002;175:347–362.Google Scholar
108.Chambers, CD, Hernandez-Diaz, S, Van Marter, LJ, et al.Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and risk of persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn. New Engl J Med. 2006;354:579–587.Google Scholar
109.McMahon, TJ, Hood, JS, Nossaman, BD, Kadowitz, PJ. Analysis of response to serotonin in the pulmonary vascular bed of the cat. J Appl Physiol. 1993;75:93–102.Google Scholar
110.Runo, JR, Lloyd, JE. Primary pulmonary hypertension. Lancet 2003;361:1533–1544.Google Scholar
111.Källén, B, Otterblad-Olausson, P. Maternal use of selective re-uptake inhibitors and persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf. 2008;17:801–806.Google Scholar
112.Andrade, SE, McPhillips, H, Loren, D, et al.Antidepressant medication use and the risk of persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf 2009;18:246–252.Google Scholar
113.Oberlander, TF, Warburton, W, Misri, S, Aghajanian, J, Hertzman, C. Neonatal outcomes after prenatal exposure to selective reuptake inhibitor antidepressants and maternal depression using population-based linked health data. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2006;63:898–906.Google Scholar
114.Suri, R, Altshuler, L, Hendrick, V, Rasgon, N, Lee, E, Mintz, J. The Impact of depression and fluoxetine on obstetrical outcome. Arch Women's Ment Health. 2004;7:193–200.Google Scholar
115.Casper, RC, Fleisher, BE, Lee-Ancajas, JC, et al.Follow-up of children of depressed mothers exposed or not exposed to antidepressant drugs during pregnancy. J Pediatr. 2003;142:402–408.Google Scholar
116.Malm, H, Klaukka, T, Newvonen, PJ. Risks associated with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 2005;106:1289–1296.Google Scholar
117.Lund, N, Pedersen, LH, Henriksen, TB. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor exposure in utero and pregnancy outcomes. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2009;163:949–954.Google Scholar
118.Zeskind, PS, Stephens, LE. Maternal selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor use during pregnancy and newborn behavior. Pediatrics. 2004;113:368–375.Google Scholar
119.Toh, S, Mitchell, AA, Louik, C, Werler, MM, Chambers, CD, Hernández-Díaz, S. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor use and risk of gestational hypertension. Am J Psychiatry. 2009;166:320–328.Google Scholar
120.Hendrick, V, Smith, LM, Suri, R, Hwang, S, Haynes, D, Altshuler, L. Birth outcomes after prenatal exposure to antidepressant medication. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2003;188:812–815.Google Scholar
121.Simon, GE, Cunningham, ML, Davis, RL. Outcomes of prenatal antidepressant exposure. Am J Psychiatry. 2002;159:2055–2061.Google Scholar
122.Oberlander, TF, Warburton, W, Misri, S, Aghajanan, J, Hertzman, J. Effects of timing and duration of gestational exposure to serotonin reuptake inhibitor antidepressants: population-based study. Br J Psychiatry. 2008;192:338–343.Google Scholar
123.Suri, R, Altshuler, L, Hellemann, G, Burt, VK, Aquino, A, Mintz, J. Effects on antenatal depression and antidepressant treatment on gestational age at birth and risk of preterm birth. Am J Psychiatry. 2007;164:1206–1213.Google Scholar
124.Einarson, A, Choi, J, Einarson, TR, Koren, G. Adverse effects of antidepressant use in pregnancy: an evaluation of fetal growth and preterm birth. Depress Anx. 2010;27:35–38.Google Scholar
125.Toh, S, Mitchell, AA, Louik, C, Werler, MM, Chambers, CD, Hernandez-Diaz, S. Antidepressant use during pregnancy and the risk of preterm delivery and fetal growth restriction. J Clin Psychopharm. 2009;29:555–560.Google Scholar
126.Pearson, KH, Nonacs, RM, Viguera, AC, et al.Birth outcomes following prenatal exposure to antidepressants. J Clin Psychiatry. 2007;68:1284–1289.Google Scholar
127.Salked, E, Ferris, LE, Juurlink, DN. The risk of postpartum hemorrage with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and other antidepressants. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2008;28:230–234.Google Scholar
128.Lejoyeux, M, Adès, J. Antidepressant discontinuation: a review of the literature. J Clin Psychiatry. 1997;58(suppl 7):11–15.Google Scholar
129.Gentile, S. SSRIs and venlafaxine-induced discontinuation syndrome [Abstract]. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2005;15(suppl 3):S391.Google Scholar
130.Stahl, SM. Essential Psychopharmacology. Neuroscientific Basis and Clinical Applications(2nd ed). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press; 2005.Google Scholar
131.Dilsaver, SC, Kronfol, Z, Sackellares, JC, Greden, JF. Antidepressant withdrawal syndromes: evidence supporting the cholinergic overdrive hypothesis. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 1983;3:157–164.Google Scholar
132.Charney, DS, Heninger, GR, Sternberg, DE, Landis, H. Abrupt discontinuation of tricyclic antidepressant drugs: evidence for noradrenergic hyperactivity. Br J Psychiatry. 1982;141:377–386.Google Scholar
133.Dilsaver, SC, Greden, JF. Antidepressant withdrawal phenomena. Biol Psychiatry. 1984;19:237–256.Google Scholar
134.ter Horst, PG, Jansman, FGA, van Lingen, RA, Smit, JP, de Jong-van den Berg, LT, Brouwers, JR. Pharmacological aspects of neonatal antidepressant withdrawal. Obstet Gynecol Surv. 2008;63:267–279.Google Scholar
135.Sternbach, H. The serotonin syndrome. Am J Psychiatry. 1991;148(6):705–713.Google Scholar
136.Dvir, Y, Smallwood, P. Serotonin syndrome: a complex but easily avoidable condition. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 2008;30:284–287.Google Scholar
137.Schateberg, AF, Haddad, P, Kaplan, M. Possible biological mechanisms of the serotonin reuptake inhibitor discontinuation syndrome. J Clin Psychiatry. 1997;58(suppl 7):23–27.Google Scholar
138.Turner, MS, May, DB, Arthur, RR, Xiong, GL. Clinical impact of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors therapy with bleeding risks. J Intern Med. 2007;261:205–213.Google Scholar
139.Degner, D, Grohmann, R, Kropp, S, et al.Severe adverse drug reactions of antidepressants: results of the German multicenter drug surveillance program AMSP. Pharmacopsychiatry. 2004;37(suppl 1):S39–S45.Google Scholar
140.Brucculeri, M, Kaplan, J, Lande, L. Reversal of cltalopram-induced junctional bradycardia with intravenous sodium bicarbonate. Pharmacotherapy. 2005;25:119–122.Google Scholar
141.Roose, SP. Treatment of depression in patients with heart disease. Biol Psychiatry. 2003;54:262–268.Google Scholar
142.Hancox, JC, Mitcheson, JS. Combined hERG channel inhibition and disruption of trafficking in drug-induced long QT syndrome by fluoxetine: a case-study in cardiac safety pharmacology. Br J Pharmacol. 2006;149:457–459.Google Scholar
143.Gentile, S. SSRIs and mood stabilizers in pregnancy and during breastfeeding. Clinical aspects. [Abstract]. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2007;17(suppl 4): S224.Google Scholar
144.Lattimore, KA, Donn, SM, Kaciroti, N, Kemper, AR, Neal, CR jr, Vazquez, DM. Selective Serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) use during pregnancy and effects on the fetus and newborn: a meta-analysis. J Perinatol. 2005;25:1–10.Google Scholar
145.Suri, R, Hellemann, G, Cohen, L, Aquino, A, Altshuler, L. Saliva estriol levels in women with and without prenatal antidepressant treatment. Biol Psychiatry. 2008;64:533–537.Google Scholar
146.Hilli, J, Heikkenen, T, Rontu, E, et al.MAO-A and COMT genotypes as possible regulators of perinatal serotoninergic symptoms after in utero exposure to SSRIs. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2009; 19:363–370.Google Scholar
147.Miller, U, Bishop, JR, Fischer, JH, Geller, SE, Mcmillan, C. Balancing risk: dosing strategies for antidepressants near the end of pregnancy. J Clin Psychiatry. 2008;69:323–324.Google Scholar
148.Baumann, P, Ulrich, S, Eckermann, G, et al.The AGNP-TDM Expert Group Consensus Guidelines: focus on therapeutic monitoring of antidepressants. Dial Clin Neurosci. 2005;7:231–247.Google Scholar
149.Sit, DK, Perel, JM, Helsel, JC, Wisner, KL. Changes in antidepressant metabolism and dosing across pregnancy and early postpartum. J Clin Psychiatry. 2008;69:652–658.Google Scholar
150.Gentile, S. Escitalopram use in late pregnancy and during breastfeeding. Ann Pharmacother. 2006;40:1696–1697.Google Scholar
151.Gentile, S, Vozzi, F. Consecutive exposure to lamotrigine and Citalopram in pregnancy [Letter]. Arch Women's Ment Health. 2007;10:299–300.Google Scholar
152.Rosack, J. FDA Committee Urges New Warning On Antidepressants for Pregnancy. Psychiatr News. 2004;39:33.Google Scholar
153.Warburton, W, Hertzman, C, Uberlander, TF. A register study of the impact of stopping third trimester selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor exposure on neonatal health. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2009 Oct 30. [Epub ahead of print].Google Scholar
154.Misri, S, Reebye, P, Kendrick, K, et al.Internalizing behaviors in 4-year-old children exposed in utero to psychotropic medications. Am J Psychiatry. 2006;163:1026–1032.Google Scholar
155.Oberlander, TF, Reebye, P, Misri, S, Papsdorf, M, Kim, J, Grunau, RE. Externalizing and attentional behaviors in children of depressed mothers treated with a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor antidepressant during pregnancy. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2007;161:22–29.Google Scholar
156.Gentile, S. SSRIs in pregnancy and lactation. Emphasis on neurodevelopmental outcome. CNS Drugs. 2005;19:623–633.Google Scholar
157.Reis, M, Källén, B. Delivery outcome after maternal use of antidepressant drugs in pregnancy: an update using Swedish data. Psychol Med. 2010:1–11.Google Scholar
158.Gentile, S. The role of estrogen therapy in postpartum psychiatric disorders. CNS Spectr. 2005;10:944–952.Google Scholar
159.Gentile, S. Psychotropic drugs in pregnancy and during breastfeeding. Clinical aspects [Abstract]. Eur Psychiatry. 2008;23(suppl 2):S373.Google Scholar