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Going in and Getting out of the Colonial Asylum: Families and Psychiatric Care in French Indochina

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  26 June 2013

Claire Edington
Claire Edington*
Affiliation:
University of Massachusetts-Boston
*
cee2106@columbia.edu
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Abstract

This paper explores the movements of asylum patients in and out of psychiatric care in French Indochina as the product of everyday interactions between psychiatrists, colonial authorities, and the public, especially patients' families. Throughout the interwar years, families and communities actively participated in psychiatric decision-making in ways that disrupt our notions of the colonial asylum as a closed setting that patients rarely left, run by experts who enjoyed broad, unquestioned authority. Vietnamese families, by debating individuals' suitability for social life, engaged with professional psychiatrists to find common ground for thinking about and discussing mental illness. At the same time, they pursued their own strategies in ways that significantly limited the power of experts. Debates revolved around the mental health of patients, but also around the capacity of families to assume their care upon release, and whether the asylum itself was the most appropriate site for treatment and rehabilitation. By considering how lay people and experts came together to negotiate the confinement and release of asylum patients, this paper offers a novel perspective on the development of psychiatric knowledge and power in colonial settings. I argue that by situating the history of psychiatry within the local dynamics of colonial rule as opposed to expert discourse, the asylum emerges here less as a blunt instrument for the social control and medicalization of colonial society than as a valuable historical site for reframing narratives of colonial repression and resistance.

Type
Research Article
Information
Comparative Studies in Society and History , Volume 55 , Issue 3 , July 2013 , pp. 725 - 755
Copyright
Copyright © Society for the Comparative Study of Society and History 2013 

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References

1 Trung Tam Luu Tru Quoc Gia I (hereafter TTL1), Inspection Generale de l'Hygiène et Santé Publique (hereafter IGHSP), 48-05, Rapport Annuel de l'Asile d'Aliénés de Bienhoa, 1931.

2 Annual asylum reports show high rates of patient turnover understood here in terms of length of stay in the asylum and the number of patients released relative to the number admitted. In 1934, out of a total 801 patients, 141 entered Bien Hoa while 101 were released; 35 percent were released after less than ten months in the asylum and 92 percent after two years. By 1938, an even greater proportion of patients left the asylum relative to those who entered, with 511 released and 544 admitted, out of a total 689 patients. See Institut de Médecine Tropicale du Service de Santé (Pharo), carton 166, Rapports Annuels de la Service de Santé, 1934 and 1939.

3 See Keller, Richard, Colonial Madness: Psychiatry in French North Africa (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Ernst, Waltraud, Mad Tales from the Raj: The European Insane in British India, 1800–1858 (New York: Routledge, 1991)Google Scholar; Sadowsky, Jonathan, Imperial Bedlam: Institutions of Madness in Colonial Southwest Nigeria (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999)Google ScholarPubMed; Jackson, Lynette, Surfacing Up: Psychiatry and Social Order in Colonial Zimbabwe, 1908–1968 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2005)Google Scholar; Vaughan, Megan, Curing Their Ills: Colonial Power and African Illness (Oxford: Polity Press, 1991)Google Scholar. Works on colonial psychiatry are mostly confined to North Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa, and India. Those from Southeast Asia remain scarce, with no work to date on Vietnam. See Hans Pols, “The Nature of the Native Mind: Contested Views of Dutch Colonial Psychiatrists in the Former Dutch East Indies,” and Leckie, Jacqui, “Unsettled Minds: Colonialism, Gender and Settling Madness in Fiji,” both in Mahone, Sloan and Vaughan, Megan, eds., Psychiatry and Empire (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007)Google Scholar.

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6 See also Erica Peters, Negotiating Power through Everyday Practices in French Vietnam, 1880–1924 (PhD diss., University of Chicago, 2000), ProQuest (AAT 9990582).

7 Wright, David. “Getting out of the Asylum: Understanding the Confinement of the Insane in the Nineteenth Century,” Social History of Medicine 10, 1 (1997): 137–55CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed, here 139.

8 Melling, Joseph. “Accommodating Madness: New Research in the Social History of Insanity and Institutions,” in Forsythe, Bill and Melling, Joseph, eds., Insanity, Institutions and Society (London: Routledge Studies in the Social History of Medicine, 1999), 6Google Scholar.

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10 On cultural relativism in colonial psychiatric practice, see Sadowsky, Jonathan, “The Social World and the Reality of Mental Illness: Lessons from Colonial Psychiatry,” Harvard Review of Psychiatry 11 (2003): 210–14CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed. See also Sadowsky's brief discussion on the role of families in Imperial Bedlam, 54–58. Catherine Coleborne focuses on European families and colonial public hospitals, but does not address the interaction of colonial asylums with indigenous families or forms of knowledge. Madness in the Family: Insanity and Institutions in the Australasian Colonial World, 1860–1914 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009)Google Scholar.

11 European and métis patients formed only a small proportion of the total asylum population. In 1926, the Bien Hoa asylum housed ten European and métis patients out of a total 379; at the end of 1932, while the total asylum population had grown to 660, only fifteen were classified as European or métis. Trung Tam Luu Tru Quoc Gia II (hereafter TTL2), Goucoch, IA.8/2912(3), Asile de Bienhoa, Rapport Annuel 1927; TTL1, IGHSP, 50-03, Rapport annuel de 1933 sur le fonctionnement du Service de l'Assistance Médicale de Tan An, Bien Hoa, Rach Gia.

12 A note on terminology: Patient case files most often refer to patients as “aliéné,” derived from the French term “aliénation mentale” or the state of being alienated or estranged from one's true rational self. Throughout the 1930s, patients were increasingly referred to by terms that denoted a more specific psychiatric diagnosis. My use of the word “insane” or “lunatic” in this paper represents a literal translation from French; it does not purport to mean that these patients were actually mentally ill, and only indicates how the French understood and expressed the need for confinement, and how families and communities made use of these terms to pursue their own strategies.

13 TTL2, Résidence Supérieur au Tonkin, 73741, Nguyen Huy Tuong à Monsieur le Résident au sujet renseignements donnés sur le Né … CAC, déséquilibré domicilié à Gia-Hoà, huyên de Thach-Thât, 30 Apr. 1928. I have redacted patients' full names to protect their privacy.

14 TTL1, Résidence Supérieur au Tonkin, 73741, Rougier, le Directeur Local de la Santé à Monsieur le Résident Supérieur, 18 May 1928.

15 In 1902, the colonial administration signed a contract with the Asile St. Pierre in Marseille, which agreed to receive French patients from Indochina. While patients continued to be repatriated throughout the interwar years, especially those able to pay their own way, the practice was deemed expensive and impractical and formed a major impetus for the decision to build a “mixed” asylum for both European and indigenous patients, which opened in 1919. TTL2, Goucoch, IA.8/104(1), Le Docteur Henaff, Chef du Service de Santé de la Cochinchine du Cambodge et du Laos, à Monsieur le Lieutenant Gouverneur de la Cochinchine, Saigon, 15 July 1903.

16 TTL3, Goucoch, IA.8/162(9), M. L. Gudenet, administrateur de Thudaumot à Monsieur le Directeur de l'Intérieur (3e Bureau), 29 Oct. 1887.

17 TTL1, Résidence Supérieur au Tonkin, 73751, Le Garde Principal commandant le poste de Dong-Chau à Monsieur l'Administrateur Résident Tuyen Quang, Dong-Chau, 16 June 1912.

18 TTL1, Résidence Supérieur au Tonkin, 73751, M. P. Carlotti, Procureur de la république de Haiphong, à Monsieur le Procureur Général, Chef du Service Judiciaire en Indo-Chine, Hanoi, 28 Feb. 1905.

19 Recueil de notices redigées à l'occasion du Xe congrès de la “Far Eastern Association of Tropical Medicine.” Hanoi (Tonkin), 24–30 Nov. 1938; Monnais-Rousselot, Laurence. Médécine et colonisation: L'aventure indochinoise, 1860–1939 (Paris: CNRS Editions, 1999)Google Scholar; Nguyen van Hoai. De l'Organisation de l'Hopital Psychiatrique du Sud-Vietnam (Saigon: Imprimerie Francaise d'Outre Mer, 1954).

20 People could also request their own internment under a “placement volontaire.” Those convicted of crimes but found irresponsible by reason of insanity were issued an ordonnance de non lieu and transferred from the prison to the asylum. Dorolle, Pierre, La Législation Indochinoise sur les aliénés: Exposé et commentaire des dispositions du décret du 18 juillet 1930 (Saigon: Imprimerie A. Portail, 1941)Google Scholar.

21 TTL1, Mairie de Hanoi, 5782, H. Virgitti à Commissaire Central de Police à Hanoi au sujet … Tho, 11 June 1935.

22 TTL1, Résidence Supérieur au Tonkin, 73738-03, Note Postale Circulaire No. 130 au sujet de l'admission des aliénés à l'asile de Bien-Hoa.

23 These survey forms appear in dozens of patient case files. See for example: TTL1, Mairie de Hanoi, 5782, Le Médecin Directeur de l'Asile d'Aliénés à Monsieur le Chef de Rue Armand Rousseau à Hanoi, au sujet … Thanh, 14 May 1935.

24 TTL1, Mairie de Hanoi, 5782, Le Médecin Directeur de l'Asile d'Aliénés, à Monsieur le Chef de la Ruelle de Phat-Loc, Hanoi, 23 Aug. 1934; Tin, Chef de Rue des Changeurs à Monsieur le Commissaire Central de la Ville de Hanoi, Aug. 1934.

25 TTL2, Goucoch, IA.8/281(20), Le Médecin Directeur de l'Asile à Monsieur le Gouverneur de Cochinchine, 10 Aug. 1926.

26 TTL2, Goucoch, IA.8/275(1), Rapport Semestriel de l'Asile de Bienhoa, 18 Dec. 1919.

27 TTL1, Résidence Supérieur au Tonkin, 73752-01, Rapport Médico-Légal de … Hang, 30 Dec. 1919.

28 Ibid.

29 TTL2, Résidence Supérieur au Tonkin, 73743-7, Rapport d'examen médico-légal du nommé Pham-Khac-Mân, détenu à la Maison Centrale de Hanoi, June 1928.

30 TTL2, Goucoch, IA.8/1724(4), Monsieur C. de Laprade, administrateur de la province de Thudaumot, à Monsieur le Lieutenant-Gouverneur Saigon, 9 Feb. 1909.

31 According to these texts, in Sino-Annamite mythology, large numbers of gods, genies, and spirits were anthropomorphized and endowed with human-like qualities including a weakness for pious attentions, flattery, and vengeance. They would seek divine reprisals on earthly sinners (with no distinction of social class or rank) in all sorts of ways but most often through sickness. In order to determine the origins of this mysterious evil (known as the “ma qui”) and to obtain the pardon of the outraged spirit, the family was compelled to seek out the help of a sorcerer or “spirit medium” to administer a cure. See Augagneur, Andre and Luong, Le Trung, “Croyances et Pratiques pour le traitement des maladies mentales en Indochine,” L'Hygiène Mentale 23 (1928): n.p.Google Scholar; Jeanselme, Edouard. “La Sorcellerie en Extreme Orient,” Journel de Médécine Légal Psychiatrique et Anthropologies Criminelle (1906): n.p.Google Scholar; Langlet, E.. Le peuple annamite: ses moeurs, croyances et traditions (Paris: Berger-Levrault, 1913)Google Scholar.

32 TTL1, Résidence Supérieur au Tonkin, 73750, Note du Chef de Bac Ran, 13 Nov. 1903.

33 Archives Nationales d'Outre Mer, BIB 12391, Dr. Gaide, “Les maladies mentales et assistance aux aliénés,” 1931.

34 TTL1, Résidence Supérieur au Tonkin, 73750, Note du Chef de Bac Ran, 13 Nov. 1903.

35 This was not a baseless accusation. In fact, throughout the 1920s, many surveillance guards at the asylum were deliberately recruited from among the ranks of the colonial penal administration. TTL1, IGHSP, 48-05, Rapport Annuel de l'Asile d'Aliénés de Bienhoa, 1931.

36 Ibid.

37 TTL1, IGHSP, 51-01, Rapport sur le fonctionnement du service de psychiatrie de l'Hôpital de Chôquan en 1934.

38 TTL1, IGHSP, 48-05, Rapport Annuel de l'Asile d'Aliénés de Bienhoa, 1931.

39 Archives Nationales d'Outre Mer, BIB 12391, Dr. Gaide, “Les maladies mentales et assistance aux aliénés,” 1931.

40 TTL1, IGHSP, 48-05, Rapport Annuel de l'Asile d'Aliénés de Bienhoa, 1931.

41 Pharo, 182, Rapport Annuel d'Ensemble de Service de la Santé, 1934.

42 TTL1, IGHSP, 48-05, Rapport Annuel de l'Asile d'Aliénés de Bienhoa, 1931.

43 TTL1, IGHSP, 51-01, Rapport sur le fonctionnement du service de psychiatrie de l'Hopital de Chôquan en 1934 (my italics).

44 See Quétel, Claude, Histoire de la folie: De l'Antiquité à nos jours (Paris: Tallendier, 2009)Google Scholar; Ernst, Waltraud and Mueller, Thomas, eds., Transnational Psychiatries: Social and Cultural Histories of Psychiatry in Comparative Perspective, c. 1800–2000 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010)Google Scholar; Porter and Wright, Confinement of the Insane.

45 See Keller Colonial Madness, 53; Wojciechowski, Jean-Bernard, Hygiène mentale et hygiène sociale (Paris: Harmattan, 1997)Google Scholar; Coffin, Jean-Christophe. “‘Misery’ and ‘Revolution’: The Organisation of French Psychiatry, 1900–1980,” in Gijswit-Hofstra, M., et al. , eds., Psychiatric Cultures Compared: Psychiatry and Mental Health Care in the Twentieth Century (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2005)Google Scholar; Pols, Hans, “Beyond the Clinical Frontiers: The American Mental Hygiene Movement, 1910–1945,” in Roelcke, V., Weindling, P., and Westwood, L., eds., International Relations in Psychiatry: Britain, Germany and the United States to World War II (Rochester, N.Y.: University of Rochester Press, 2010)Google Scholar.

46 Therapeutic labor was reserved for indigenous populations while physical education for Europeans took the form of outdoor leisure activities. These distinctions in treatment regimes reflected not only assumptions about the racialized hierarchy of colonial life but also became inflected with class-based notions about the distribution of labor. Europeans did not labor but neither did the members of the Vietnamese bourgeoisie who came to occupy the old European wing when a “paying service” for indigenous populations was inaugurated at Bien Hoa in 1934.

47 See “Introduction,” in Keller, Colonial Madness.

48 H. Aubin, L'Assistance Psychiatrique Indigène aux Colonies. Rapport de congrès des médecins aliénistes et neurologistes de France et des pays de langue francaise, XLIIe session—Alger, 6–11 Avril 1938.

49 TTL1, IGHSP, 51-01, Hopital de Chôquan. Rapport sur le fonctionnement du service de psychiatrie de l'Hôpital de Chôquan en 1934.

50 Ibid.

51 TTL1, Résidence Supérieur au Tonkin, 78747-01, Asile de Bien Hoa, Rapport Annuel pour 1928.

52 Archives Nationales d'Outre Mer, Résidence Supérieur du Tonkin, 03749, Lettre à Monsieur le Résident Supérieur au Tonkin, au sujet de l'assistance psychiatrique en faveur de … Phien, 23 Feb. 1942.

53 Sadowsky, Jonathan, “The Social World and the Reality of Mental Illness: Lessons from Colonial Psychiatry,” Harvard Review of Psychiatry 11 (2003): 210–14CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

54 Monnais, Laurence and Tousignant, Noémi, “The Colonial Life of Pharmaceuticals: Accessibility to Healthcare, Consumption of Medicines, and Medical Pluralism in French Vietnam, 1905–1945,” Journal of Vietnamese Studies 1, 1–2 (2006): 131–66CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

55 On the “surveillance sanitaire,” see, for example: TTL1, Résidence Supérieur au Tonkin, 73752-04, Internement à l'Asile de Voi (Bac Giang) des aliénés de 1936, Feuille 19, 16 Dec. 1936.

56 Dorolle, Législation Indochinoise.

57 These letters typically appear in Vietnamese with a French translation attached to the original. These letters were likely written, not by the family members themselves, but rather by someone they had hired who knew French and the conventions of letter writing. For work on the history of discharge practices, see Wright, David, “The Discharge of Pauper Lunatics from Country Asylums in Mid-Victorian England, the Case of Buckinghamshire, 1853–1872,” in Forsythe, Bill and Melling, Joseph, eds., Insanity, Institutions and Society (London: Routledge Studies in the Social History of Medicine, 1999), 106Google Scholar. My attention to family letters also draws inspiration from Farge and Foucault's work on the lettres de cachet of the ancien régime as a window into the “politics” of family life. See Farge, Arlette and Foucault, Michel, eds., Le Désordre des familles: Lettres de cachet des archives de la Bastille au XVIIIe siècle (Paris: Gallimard, 1982)Google Scholar.

58 Natalie Davis examines the formulaic qualities of prisoner narratives in writing to power. See her Fiction in the Archives: Pardon Tales and Their Tellers in Sixteenth Century France (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988)Google Scholar. For letter writing in the context of asylums, see Wannell, Louise, “Patients' Relatives and Psychiatric Doctors: Letter Writing in the York Retreat, 1875–1910,” Social History of Medicine 20, 2 (2007): 297–313CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; Coleborne, Catharine. “‘His brain was wrong, his mind astray’: Families and the Language of Insanity in New South Wales, Queensland, and New Zealand, 1880s–1910,” Journal of Family History 31, 1 (2006): 45–65CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

59 TTL2, Goucoch, IA.8/162(9), Au sujet de l'annamite … Nhut atteint d'aliénation mental, 7 Mar. 1887.

60 TTL2, Résidence Supérieur au Tonkin, 73742, Lettre de Tran-van-Ngoc, Greffier près le tribunal de Ninh-Binh à Monsieur l'Administrateur, Résident à Vinh, 9 July 1930.

61 TTL2, Goucoch, IA.8/275(1), Lettre de Nguyen-van-Giat au sujet de … Phu, 28 Dec. 1919.

62 TTL2, Goucoch, IA.8/274(1), Le Delegue administratif a Monsieur l'Administrateur Chef de la Province de Tra Vinh, 7 Nov. 1922.

63 TTL2, Goucoch, IA.8/2912(2), Lettre à Monsieur le Gouverneur de la Cochinchine, au sujet de … Gia, 26 Oct. 1927.

64 TTL1, Résidence Supérieur au Tonkin, 73743, Lettre à Monsieur le Résident Supérieur au Tonkin, 24 June 1933.

65 TTL2, Goucoch, IA.8/2912(2), Lettre à Monsieur le Gouverneur de la Cochinchine, au sujet de … Gia, 26 Oct. 1927.

66 TTL2, Goucouch, 73743-03, Lettre de Nguyen Thi Phuc à Monsieur le Résident au Tonkin, 11 July 1963.

67 TTL1, Résidence Supérieur au Tonkin, 73743-7, Lettre de Lê-thi-Duyên et Nguyên-thi-Keo à Monsieur le Résident Supérieur au Tonkin, 27 July 1928.

68 TTL2, Goucoch, IA.8/276(2), Le Medecin Directeur de l'Asile à Monsieur le Gouverneur de Cochinchine, 8 Sept. 1927.

69 See TTL2, Goucoch, IA.8/281(2), Rapport médico-légal au sujet de l'état mental et de la responsabilité du nommé Trieu-van-Sau, June 1925.

70 TTL2, Goucoch, IA.8/276 (2), Le Médecin Directeur de l'Asile de Bienhoa à Monsieur le Gouverneur de la Cochinchine, 17 Feb. 1925.

71 TTL2, Goucoch, IA.8/276(2), Le Médecin Directeur de l'Asile de Bienhoa à Monsieur le Gouverneur de Cochinchine, 8 Sept. 1927.

72 TTL2, Goucoch, IA.8/274(3), Lettre de Gouverneur Général à Médecin-Directeur de l'Asile de Bienhoa au sujet de … Vinh, 1 Apr. 1920.

73 TTL2, Goucoch, IA.8/274(3), Dr. Mul, Assistance Médicale Province de Mytho, à Monsieur l'Administrateur, Chef de la province de Mytho, 18 Mar. 1920.

74 TTL2, Goucoch, IA.8/274(3), Le Thi Mai à Monsieur le Gouverneur de la Cochinchine, 26 Sept. 1921.

75 Pharo, carton 182, Rapport Annuel d'Ensemble de la Service de Santé, 1934.

76 TTL2, Goucoch, IA.8/274(3), Le Thi Mai à Monsieur le Gouverneur de la Cochinchine, 26 Sept. 1921.

77 TTL2, Goucouch, 73743-03, Lettre de Nguyen Thi Phuc à Monsieur le Résident au Tonkin, 11 July 1963.

78 TTL2, Goucoch, IA.8/294(2), Le Médecin Directeur de l'Asile d'Aliénés de Bienhoa à Monsieur l'Administrateur, Chef de la Province de Vinhlong, 27 May 1920 (original underlining).

79 TTL2, Goucoch, IA.8/275(1), Le Médecin Directeur de l'Asile des Aliénés à Monsieur le Gouverneur de la Cochinchine, 7 Sept. 1920.

80 TTL2, Goucouch, IA.8/281(2), Le Procureur General près la Cour d'Appel de Saigon à Monsieur le Gouverneur de la Cochinchine, 29 June 1925.

81 TTL1, Résidence Supérieur au Tonkin, 73744-02, Le Tri-Huyen de Thanh-Oai à Monsieur le Résident de Hadong, 26 July 1923.

82 TTL2, Goucoch, IA.8/281(2), Le Médecin Directeur de l'Asile à Monsieur le Gouverneur de Cochinchine, 26 Aug. 1926.

83 TTL2, Goucoch, IA.8/2912(2), Le Médecin Directeur de l'Asile à Monsieur le Gouverneur de Cochinchine, 3 Dec. 1927.

84 Stoler, Ann Laura, Carnal Knowledge and Imperial Power: Race and the Intimate in Colonial Rule (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001)Google Scholar.

85 Marland, Hilary. “At Home with Puerparal Mania: The Domestic Treatment of the Insanity of Childbirth in the 19th Century,” in Bartlett, Peter and Wright, David, eds., Outside the Walls of the Asylum: The History of Care in Community 1750–2000 (New Jersey: Athlone Press, 1999), 45–65Google Scholar.

86 The piastre de commerce was the silver-standard unit used by the French in Indochina between 1885 and 1952. In 1930, the piastre was pegged to the French franc at a rate of 1 piastre to 10 francs.

87 TTL2, Goucoch, IA.8/274(1), Monsieur de Tastes, Administrateur des Services Civils, Président de la Commission municipale de Cholon, à Monsieur le Gouverneur de la Cochinchine, 6 Oct. 1922.

88 TTL2, Goucoch, IA.8/281(1), L'Administrateur des Services Civils Chef de la Province de Vinhong à Monsieur le Gouverneur de la Cochinchine, 16 Jan. 1924.

89 TTL2, Goucoch, IA.8/281(1), Lettre de Commissaire Special Etievant, Monsieur l'Administrateur Chef de la Sureté au sujet de … Sau, 15 Dec. 1921.

90 TTL2, Goucoch, IA.8/276(1), L'Administrateur de Can Tho à Monsieur le Gouverneur de la Cochinchine, 3 Sept. 1923.

91 TTL2, Goucoch, IA.8/276(2), L'Administrateur de Cantho à Monsieur le Gouvernement de la Cochinchine, 18 Feb. 1925.

92 TTL2, Goucoch, IA.8/294(3), Certificat Semestriel de … Nham, Asile d'Alienes de Bien Hoa, 22 May 1920.

93 Monnais and Tousignagnt, “Colonial Life of Pharmaceuticals,” 132.

94 French colonial doctors and officials referred to spirit mediums as “sorcerers” in their reports and correspondence. All references to sorcerers in the text therefore reflect the common French usage of the term. TTL1, IGHSP, 39-05, Rapport Annuel de 1931 sur le fonctionnement des Services Sanitaires et Médicaux à Bien Hoa.

95 TTL1, Résidence Supérieur au Tonkin, 73741, Rapport médico-légal … Cac, 4 Feb. 1938.

96 TTL1, IGHSP, 004, Rapport annuel de 1928.

97 TTL1, Résidence Supérieur au Tonkin, 73741, Rapport d'examen médical de la nommée … Can, 30 Dec. 1933; TTL2, 155(3), Certificat d'admission du Médecin-Auxiliaire Nguyen-van-Phan, Asile de Bienhoa, 3 Nov. 1921; TTL2, 2751(1), Certificat Semestriel de … Luc, Asile de Bien Hoa, 2 Aug. 1919.

98 TTL1, 73737, Certificat Médical du nommé … Thai, 11 June 1936.

99 TTL2, Résidence Supérieur au Tonkin, 73741, Rapport Médical … Cac, 4 Feb. 1928.

100 TTL1, Résidence Supérieur au Tonkin, 73752-01, Rapport Médico Légal … Hang, 30 Dec. 1919.

101 Pharo, 166, Le Résident Supérieur au Tonkin, Yves Chatel à Monsieur le Gouverneur Général de l'Indochine (Direction des Services Economiques et Inspection Générale de l'Hygiène et de la Santé Publiques), 12 Nov. 1937.

102 ANOM, Résidence Supérieur au Tonkin Nouveau Fonds, 3753, Le Docteur de Raymond Directeur Local de la Santé à Monsieur le Résident Supérieur au Tonkin (1er Bureau), au sujet voeux relatifs à l'Asile de Voi, 21 Sept. 1939.

103 TTL2, Goucoch, 281(1), Le Médecin Directeur de l'Asile à Monsieur le Gouverneur de la Cochinchine, 13 Sept. 1924.

104 ANOM, Résidence Supérieur au Tonkin Nouveau Fonds, 3893, Le Résident Supérieur au Tonkin à Monsieur le Gouverneur Général de l'Indochine, 21 Aug. 1930.

105 Archives Nationales d'Outre Mer, Résidence Supérieur au Tonkin Nouveau Fonds, Le Residént Supérieur au Tonkin, Yves Chatel, à Gouveneur Général (Direction des Services Economiques et Inspection Générale de l'Hygiène et de la Santé Publique), 12 Nov. 1937.

106 TTL2, Goucoch, IA.8/276(2), Le Médecin Directeur de l'Asile à Monsieur le Directeur local de la Sante en Cochinchine, 10 Feb. 1925.

107 Archives Nationales d'Outre Mer, RSTNF, Rapport au sujet de la création d'un asile colonie sur le terrain de l'Asile de Voi par Dr. Grinsard, 5 June 1937.