Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-94fs2 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-11T09:42:26.727Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Early experiences of insensitive caregiving and children's self-regulation: Vagal tone as a differential susceptibility factor

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  03 January 2020

Michael A. Skibo ,
Melissa L. Sturge-Apple Open the ORCID record for Melissa L. Sturge-Apple [Opens in a new window]  and
Jennifer H. Suor
Michael A. Skibo
Affiliation:
Department of Social Sciences, State University of New York, Westchester, NY, USA
Melissa L. Sturge-Apple*
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of Rochester and Mt. Hope Family Center, Rochester, NY, USA
Jennifer H. Suor
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA
*
Author for Correspondence: Melissa Sturge-Apple, Mt. Hope Family Center and Department of Psychology, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York, 14627. E-mail: melissa.sturge-apple@rochester.edu.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

A considerable body of research has linked parenting to the development of children's self-regulation. However, few studies have considered different domains of self-regulation, the effects of early caregiving behaviors, and whether or not parenting influences children equally. Towards this, the present investigation tested how early maternal insensitivity was associated with difficulties in children's effortful control in early childhood and their regulation of negative emotions during the early school years. Further, we tested whether children's resting vagal tone may operate as a susceptibility factor, consistent with differential susceptibility models. The sample included 220 pairs of mothers and their children who were assessed at 18 months, 3.5 years and 5 years of age. Laboratory visits consisted of observational paradigms and survey assessments. Early maternal insensitivity at 18 months of age forecasted difficulties with effortful control at age 3.5. Moreover, effortful control at age 3.5 was associated with greater anger, but not sadness, regulation at age 5. Consistent with differential susceptibility, children's resting vagal tone at 18 months of age moderated the role of early caregiving on children's effortful control. The findings suggest that low resting vagal tone may operate as a differential susceptibility factor in process models testing associations between early caregiving environments and children's self-regulation.

Keywords

differential susceptibilityparentingrespiratory sinus arrhythmiaself-regulation
Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 32 , Special Issue 4: Conceptualizing and Interrogating Autism Spectrum Disorder from a Developmental Psychopathology Framework , October 2020 , pp. 1460 - 1472
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abe, J. A., & Izard, C. E. (1999). Compliance, noncompliance strategies, and the correlates of compliance in 5-year-old Japanese and American children. Social Development, 8, 1–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allen, J. J. B. (2002). Calculating metrics of cardiac chronotropy: A pragmatic overview. Psychophysiology, 39, S18.Google Scholar
Allen, J. J. B., Chambers, A.S., & Towers, D.N. (2007). The many metrics of cardiac chronotropy: A pragmatic primer and a brief comparison of metrics. Biological Psychology, 74, 243–262.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Applehans, B., & Lueken, L. (2006). Attentional processes, anxiety, and regulation of cortisol reactivity. Anxiety, Stress & Coping, 19, 81–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bagner, D. M., Rodríguez, G. M., Blake, C. A., Linares, D., & Carter, A. S. (2012). Assessment of behavioral and emotional problems in infancy: A systematic review. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 15, 113–128.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baumrind, D. (1973). The development of instrumental competence through socialization. In Pick, A. D. (Ed.), Minnesota symposium on child psychology (Vol. 7, pp. 3–46). Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beauchaine, T. (2001). Vagal tone, development, and Gray's motivational theory: Toward an integrated model of autonomic nervous system functioning in psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 183–214.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Belsky, J. (2005). Differential susceptibility to rearing influence: An evolutionary hypothesis and some evidence. In Ellis, B. J., & Bjorklund, D. F. (Eds.), Origins of the social mind: Evolutionary psychology and child development (pp. 139–163). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Belsky, J., & Pluess, M. (2009). Beyond diathesis stress: Differential susceptibility to environmental influences. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 885–908.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Belsky, J., Pluess, M., & Widaman, K. F. (2013). Confirmatory and competitive evaluation of alternative gene-environment interaction hypotheses. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54, 1135–1143.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Belsky, J., Schlomer, G. L., & Ellis, B. J. (2012). Beyond cumulative risk: Distinguishing harshness and unpredictability as determinants of parenting and early life history strategy. Developmental Psychology, 48, 662.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Belsky, J., Steinberg, L., & Draper, P. (1991). Childhood experience, interpersonal development, and reproductive strategy: An evolutionary theory of socialization. Child Development, 62, 647–670.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berntson, G. G., Cacioppo, J. T., & Quigley, K. (1993). Respiratory sinus arrhythmia: Autonomic origins, physiological mechanisms, and psychophysiological implication. Psychophysiology, 30, 183–196.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boyce, W. T., & Ellis, B. J. (2005). Biological sensitivity to context: I. An evolutionary-developmental theory of the origins and functions of stress reactivity. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 271–301.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Calkins, S. D. (1994). Origins and outcomes of individual differences in emotion regulation. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 59, 53–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Calkins, S. D., & Johnson, M. C. (1998). Toddler regulation of distress to frustrating events: Temperamental and maternal correlates. Infant Behavior and Development, 21, 379–395.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campos, J. J., Campos, R. G., & Barrett, K. C. (1989). Emergent themes in the study of emotional development and emotion regulation. Developmental Psychology, 25(3), 394–402.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carver, C. S. (2004). Negative affects deriving from the behavioral approach system. Emotion, 4(1), 3–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carver, C. S., & Harmon-Jones, E. (2009). Anger is an approach-related affect: Evidence and implications. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 183–204.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chang, H., Olson, S. L., Sameroff, A. J., & Sexton, H. R. (2011). Child effortful control as a mediator of parenting practices on externalizing behavior: Evidence for a sex-differentiated pathway across the transition from preschool to school. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 39, 71–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chen, L., Ba, H., Ignjatovic, Z., Heinzelman, W., & Sturge-Apple, M. L. (2010). Adaptive matched filtering for improved R-R interval detection in noisy ECG signals. Unpublished manuscript.Google Scholar
Choe, D. E., Lane, J. D., Grabell, A. S., & Olson, S. L. (2013). Developmental precursors of young school-age children's hostile attribution bias. Developmental Psychology, 49(12), 2245–2256.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D. (1993). Developmental psychopathology: Reactions, reflections, projections. Developmental Review, 13(4), 471–502.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Aber, J. L. (1998). Contextualism and developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 10, 137–141.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., & Garmezy, N. (1993). Prospects and promises in the study of resilience. Development and Psychopathology, 5, 497–502.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cole, P. M. (2014). Moving ahead in the study of the development of emotion regulation. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 38, 203–207.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cole, P. M., Michel, M. K., & Teti, L. O. D. (1994). The development of emotion regulation and dysregulation: A clinical perspective. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 59, 73–102.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Compas, B. E., Jaser, S. S., Bettis, A. H., Watson, K. H., Gruhn, M. A., Dunbar, J. P., … & Thigpen, J. C. (2017). Coping, emotion regulation, and psychopathology in childhood and adolescence: A meta-analysis and narrative review. Psychological Bulletin, 143, 939.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Conradt, E., Measelle, J., & Ablow, J. C. (2013). Poverty, problem behavior, and promise: Differential susceptibility among infants reared in poverty. Psychological Science, 24, 235–242.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Conway, A., McDonough, S. C., MacKenzie, M., Miller, A., Dayton, C., Rosenblum, K., … & Sameroff, A. (2014). Maternal sensitivity and latency to positive emotion following challenge: Pathways through effortful control. Infant Mental Health Journal, 35, 274–284.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Criss, M. M., Morris, A. S., Ponce-Garcia, E., Cui, L., & Silk, J. S. (2016). Pathways to adaptive emotion regulation among adolescents from low-income families. Family Relations, 65, 517–529.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cui, L., Morris, A. S., Criss, M. M., Houltberg, B. J., & Silk, J. S. (2014). Parental psychological control and adolescent adjustment: The role of adolescent emotion regulation. Parenting, 14, 47–67.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davies, P.T., & Sturge-Apple, M. L. (2014). Family context in the development of psychopathology. In Lewis, M. & Rudolf, K. D. (Eds.), Handbook of developmental psychopathology (3rd ed., pp. 143–161). New York: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dennis, T. A., & Kelemen, D. A. (2009). Preschool children's views on emotion regulation: Functional associations and implications for social-emotional adjustment. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 33, 243–252.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eiden, R. D., Edwards, E. P., & Leonard, K. E. (2004). Predictors of effortful control among children of alcoholic and nonalcoholic fathers. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 65, 309–319.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eisenberg, N., Hofer, C., Sulik, M. J., & Spinrad, T. L. (2013). Self-regulation, effortful control, and their socioemotional correlates. In Gross, J. J. (Ed.), Handbook of emotion regulation (2nd ed., pp. 157–172). New York: Guilford.Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Spinrad, T. L., & Eggum, N. D. (2010). Emotion-related self-regulation and its relation to children's maladjustment. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 6, 495–525.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eisenberg, N., Zhou, Q., Spinrad, T. L., Valiente, C., Fabes, R. A., & Liew, J. (2005). Relations among positive parenting, children's effortful control, and externalizing problems: A three-wave longitudinal study. Child Development, 76, 1055–1071.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ellis, B. J., Boyce, W. T., Belsky, J., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2011). Differential susceptibility to the environment: An evolutionary-neurodevelopmental theory. Development and Psychopathology, 23, 7–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellis, B. J., Essex, M. J., & Boyce, T. (2005). Biological sensitivity to context: II. Empirical explorations of an evolutionary-developmental theory. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 303–328.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fabes, R. A., & Eisenberg, N. (1997). Regulatory control and adults' stress-related responses to daily life events. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 1107–1117.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fox, N. A., & Calkins, S. D. (2003). The development of self-control of emotion: Intrinsic and extrinsic influences. Motivation and Emotion, 27(1), 7–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fox, N. A., Henderson, H. A., Marshall, P. J., Nichols, K. E., & Ghera, M. M. (2005). Behavioral inhibition: Linking biology and behavior within a developmental framework. Annu. Rev. Psychol., 56, 235–262.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldsmith, H. H., Reilly, J., Lemery, K. S., Longley, S., & Prescott, A. (1999). The Laboratory Temperament Assessment Battery: Preschool Version. Unpublished Manuscript, Arlington, TX: University of Texas.Google Scholar
Gottlieb, G. (1991). Experiential canalization of behavioral development: Theory. Developmental Psychology, 27, 4–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Graziano, P. A., Reavis, R. D., Keane, S. P., & Calkins, S. D., (2007). The role of emotion regulation in children's early academic success. Journal of School Psychology, 45, 3–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gueron-Sela, N., Wagner, N. J., Propper, C. B., Mills-Koonce, W. R., Moore, G. A., & Cox, M. J. (2017). The interaction between child respiratory sinus arrhythmia and early sensitive parenting in the prediction of children's executive functions. Infancy, 22, 171–189.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hastings, P. D., & De, I. (2008). Parasympathetic regulation and parental socialization of emotion: Biopsychosocial processes of adjustment in preschoolers. Social Development, 17, 211–238.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holochwost, S. J., Gariepy, J. L., Propper, C. B., Mills-Koonce, W. R., & Moore, G. (2014). Parenting behaviors and vagal tone at six months predict attachment disorganization at twelve months. Developmental Psychobiology, 56, 1423–1430.Google ScholarPubMed
Holochwost, S. J., Volpe, V. V., Gueron-Sela, N., Propper, C. B., & Mills-Koonce, W. R. (2018). Sociodemographic risk, parenting, and inhibitory control in early childhood: The role of respiratory sinus arrhythmia. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 59, 973–981.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Karreman, A., van Tujil, C., van Aken, M. A. G., & Dekovic, M. (2008). Parenting, coparenting, and effortful control in preschoolers. Journal of Family Psychology, 22, 30–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kieras, J. E., Tobin, R. E. M., Graziano, W. G., & Rothbart, M. K. (2005). You can't always get what you want: Effortful control and children's response to undesirable gifts. Psychological Science, 16, 391–396.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kochanska, G., Aksan, N., & Carlson, J. J. (2005). Temperament, relationships, and young children's receptive cooperation with their parents. Developmental Psychology, 41, 648.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kochanska, G., & Kim, S. (2013). Difficult temperament moderates links between maternal responsiveness and children's compliance and behavior problems in low-income families. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54, 323–332.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kochanska, G., & Knaack, A. (2003). Effortful control as a personality characteristic of young children: Antecedents, correlates, and consequences. Journal of Personality, 71, 1087–1112.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kochanska, G., Murray, K. T., & Harlan, E. T. (2000). Effortful control in early childhood: Continuity and change, antecedents, and implications for social development. Developmental Psychology, 36, 220–232.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kopp, C. B. (1989). Regulation of distress and negative emotions: A developmental view. Developmental Psychology, 25(3), 343–354.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kopystynska, O., Spinrad, T. L., Seay, D. M., & Eisenberg, N. (2016). The interplay of maternal sensitivity and gentle control when predicting children's subsequent academic functioning: Evidence of mediation by effortful control. Developmental Psychology, 52, 909–921.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kupersmidt, J. B., & Coie, J. D. (1990). Preadolescent peer status, aggression, and school adjustment as predictors of externalizing problems in adolescence. Child Development, 61, 1350–1362.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lengua, L. J (2012). Poverty, the development of effortful control, and children's academic, social, and emotional adjustment. In Maholmes, V. and King, R. B. (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of poverty and child development (pp. 491–511). New York: Oxford.Google Scholar
Lengua, L. J., Bush, N. R., Long, A. C., Kovacs, E. A., & Trancik, A. M. (2008). Effortful control as a moderator of the relation between contextual risk factors and growth in adjustment problems. Development and Psychopathology, 20, 509–528.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lengua, L. J., Honorado, E., & Bush, N. R. (2007). Contextual risk and parenting as predictors of effortful control and social competence in preschool children. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 28, 40–55.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lengua, L. J., Kiff, C., Moran, L., Zalewski, M., Thompson, S., Cortes, R., & Ruberry, E. (2014). Parenting mediates the effects of income and cumulative risk on the development of effortful control. Social Development, 23, 631–649.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Little, R. J. (1988). A test of missing completely at random for multivariate data with missing values. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 83(404), 1198–1202.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacDonald, K. B. (2008). Effortful control, explicit processing, and the regulation of human evolved predispositions. Psychological Review, 115, 1012–1031.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mackinnon, D. P., Fritz, M. S., Williams, J., & Lockwood, C. M,. (2007). Distribution of the product confidence limits for the indirect effect: Program PRODCLIN. Behavior Research Methods, 39, 384–389.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marcovitch, S., Leigh, J., Calkins, S. D., Leerks, E. M., O'brien, M., & Blankson, A. N. (2010). Moderate vagal withdrawal in 3.5-year-old children is associated with optimal performance on executive function tasks. Developmental Psychobiology, 52, 603–608.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marsh, H. W., Wen, Z., Hau, K. T., Little, T. D., Bovaird, J. A., & Widaman, K. F. (2007). Unconstrained structural equation models of latent interactions: Contrasting residual-and mean-centered approaches. Structural Equation Modeling, 14, 570–580.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McClelland, M. M., Geldhof, J., Cameron, C. E., & Wanless, S. B. (2015). Development and self-regulation. In Overton, W. F. & Molenaar, P. C. M. (Eds.), Theory and Method: Handbook of child psychology and developmental science (7th ed., Vol. 1, pp. 535–565). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Melby, J. N., & Conger, R. D. (2001). The Iowa Family Interaction Rating Scales: Instrument summary. In Karig, P. K., & Lindahl, K. M. (Eds.), Family observational coding systems (pp. 33–58). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Mintz, T. M., Hamre, B. K., & Hatfield, B. E. (2011). The role of effortful control in mediating the association between maternal sensitivity and children's social and relational competence and problems in first grade. Early Education & Development, 22, 360–387.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Monroe, S. M., & Simons, A. D. (1991). Diathesis-stress theories in the context of life stress research: Implications for the depressive disorders. Psychological Bulletin, 110, 406–425.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morris, A. S., Silk, J. S., Morris, M. D., Steinberg, L., Aucoin, K. J., & Keyes, A. W. (2011). The influence of mother–child emotion regulation strategies on children's expression of anger and sadness. Developmental psychology, 47, 213–225.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Obradović, J., Bush, N. R., Stamperdahl, J., Adler, N. E., & Boyce, W. T. (2010). Biological sensitivity to context: The interactive effects of stress reactivity and family adversity on socioemotional behavior and school readiness. Child Development, 81, 270–289.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olson, S. L., & Lunkenheimer, E. S. (2009). Expanding concepts of self-regulation to social relationships: Transactional processes in the development of early behavioral adjustment. In Sameroff, A. (Ed.), The transactional model of development: How children and contexts shape each other (pp. 55–76). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Olson, S. L., Sameroff, A. J., Kerr, D. C. R., Lopez, N. L., & Wellman, H. M. (2005). Developmental foundations of externalizing problems in young children: The role of effortful control. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 25–45.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Phan, K. L., Wager, T., Taylor, S. F., & Liberzon, I. (2002). Functional neuroanatomy of emotion: A meta-analysis of emotion activation studies in PET and fMRI. Neuroimage, 16, 331–348.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Piotrowski, J. T., Lapierre, M. A., & Linebarger, D. L. (2013). Investigating correlates of self-regulation in early childhood with a representative sample of English-speaking American families. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 22, 423–436.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Porges, S. W. (1991). Vagal tone: An autonomic mediator of affect. In Dodge, K. A. & Garber, J. (Eds.), The development of emotion regulation and dysregulation (pp. 111–128). New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Porges, S. W. (1996). Physiological regulation in high-risk infants: A model for assessment and potential intervention. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 43–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Porges, S. W. (2011). The polyvagal theory: Neurophysiological foundations of emotions, attachment, communication, and self-regulation. New York: Norton.Google Scholar
Porges, S. W., Doussard-Roosevelt, J. A., & Maiti, A. K. (1994). Vagal tone and the physiological regulation of emotion. Mongraphs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 59, 167–186.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Posner, M. I., & Rothbart, M. K. (2000). Developing mechanisms of self-regulation. Development & Psychopathology, 12, 427–441.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Propper, C., & Moore, G. A. (2006). The influence of parenting on infant emotionality: A multi-level psychobiological perspective. Developmental Review, 26, 427–460.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rimm-Kaufman, S. E., & Pianta, R. C. (2000). An ecological perspective on the transition to kindergarten: A theoretical framework to guide empirical research. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 21, 491–511.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roisman, G. I., Newman, D. A., Fraley, R. C., Haltigan, J. D., Groh, A. H., & Haydon, K. C. (2012). Distinguishing differential susceptibility from diathesis–stress: Recommendations for evaluating interaction effects. Development and Psychopathology, 24, 389–409.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Röll, J., Koglin, U., & Petermann, F. (2012). Emotion regulation and childhood aggression: Longitudinal associations. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 43, 909–923.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rothbart, M. K., Ahadi, S. A., Hershey, K. L., & Fisher, P. (2001). Investigations of temperament at three to seven years: The Children’s Behavior Questionnaire. Child Development, 72, 1394–1408.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rubin, K. H., Bukowski, W. M., Parker, J. G., & Bowker, J. (2008). Peer interactions, relationships and groups. In Damon, W., & Lerner, R. M. (Eds.), Child and adolescent development: An advanced course (pp. 141–180). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Ruff, H. A., & Rothbart, M. K. (1996). Attention in early development: Themes and variations. London: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Rutter, M., Moffitt, T. E., & Caspi, A. (2006). Gene–environment interplay and psychopathology: Multiple varieties but real effects. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47, 226–261.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shields, A., & Cicchetti, D. (2001). Parental maltreatment and emotion dysregulation as risk factors for bullying and victimization in middle childhood. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 30, 349–363.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shields, A., Ryan, R. M., & Cicchetti, D. (2001). Narrative representations of caregivers and emotion dysregulation as predictors of maltreated children's rejection by peers. Developmental Psychology, 37, 321–337.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shores, R. E., & Wehby, J. H. (1999). Analyzing the classroom social behavior of students with EBD. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 7, 194–199.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simonds, J., Kieras, J. E., Rueda, M. R., & Rothbart, M. K. (2007). Effortful control, executive attention, and emotional regulation in 7–10-year-old children. Cognitive Development, 22, 474–488.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, C. L., & Day, K. L. (2018). Parenting, anger, and effortful control as predictors of child externalizing behavior: The role of child sex as a moderator. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 42, 248–256.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Somers, J. A., Jewell, S. L., Hanna Ibrahim, M., & Luecken, L. J. (2018). Infants’ biological sensitivity to the effects of maternal social support: Evidence among Mexican American families. Infancy, 24, 275–296.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Spinrad, T. L., Eisenberg, N., Gaertner, B., Popp, T., Smith, C. L., Kupfer, A., … & Hofer, C. (2007). Relations of maternal socialization and toddler's effortful control to children's adjustment and social competence. Developmental Psychology, 43, 1170–1186.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sturge-Apple, M. L., Suor, J. H., Davies, P. T., Cicchetti, D., Skibo, M. A., & Rogosch, F. A. (2016). Vagal tone and children's delay of gratification: Differential sensitivity in resource-poor and resource-rich environments. Psychological Science, 27, 885–893.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sulik, M. J., Eisenberg, N., Lemery-Chalfant, K., Spinrad, T., Silva, K. M., Eggum, N. D., … Stover, D. A. (2012). Interactions between serotonin transporter gene haplotypes and quality of mothers' parenting predict the development of children's noncompliance. Developmental Psychology, 48, 740–754.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Suor, J. H., Sturge-Apple, M. L., Davies, P. T., & Cicchetti, D. (2017). A life history approach to delineating how harsh environments and hawk temperament traits differentially shape children's problem-solving skills. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 58(8), 902–909.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tan, L., & Smith, C. L. (2018). Function of child anger and sadness in response to a blocked goal. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 170, 190–196.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Taylor, Z. E., Eisenberg, N., & Spinrad, T. L. (2015). Respiratory sinus arrhythmia, effortful control, and parenting as predictors of children's sympathy across early childhood. Developmental Psychology, 51(1), 17–25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Taylor, Z. E., & Spinrad, T. L. (2017). Developmental tools that build social and emotional competence in school: A focus on effortful control and ego-resiliency. Toward a Positive Psychology of Relationships: New Directions in Theory and Research, 119, 119–140.Google Scholar
Thompson, R. A. (1994). Emotion regulation: A theme in search of definition. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 59, 25–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thompson, R. A. (2015). Relationships, regulation, and early development. In Lerner, R. M., & Lamb, M. E. (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology and developmental science: Vol. 3. Socioemotional processes (pp. 201–246). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Tofighi, D. P. (2011). RMediation: An R package for mediation analysis confidence intervals. Behavior Research Methods, 43, 692–700.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Valiente, C., Lemery-Chalfant, K., & Reiser, M. (2007). Pathways to problem behaviors: Chaotic homes, parent and child effortful control, and parenting. Social Development, 16, 249–267.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walle, E. A., & Campos, J. J. (2012). Interpersonal responding to discrete emotions: A functionalist approach to the development of affect specificity. Emotion Review, 4, 413–422.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Waters, S. F., & Thompson, R. A. (2014). Children’s perceptions of the effectiveness of strategies for regulating anger and sadness. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 38, 174–181.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Widen, S. C., & Russell, J. A. (2010). Children's scripts for social emotions: Causes and consequences are more central than are facial expressions. British Journal of Developmental Psuchology, 28, 565–581.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zeman, J., Shipman, K., & Penza-Clyve, S. (2001). Development and initial validation of the Children's Sadness Management Scale. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 25, 540–547.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zeman, J., Shipman, K., & Suveg, C. (2002). Anger and sadness regulation: Predictions to internalizing and externalizing symptoms in children. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 393–398.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zimmermann, P., & Iwanski, A. (2014). Emotion regulation from early adolescence to emerging adulthood and middle adulthood: Age differences, gender differences, and emotion-specific developmental variation. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 38, 182–194.CrossRefGoogle Scholar