Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-dzt6s Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T08:39:28.520Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Four factors for the initiation of substance use by young adulthood: A 10-year follow-up twin and sibling study of marital conflict, monitoring, siblings, and peers

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 February 2013

Jenae M. Neiderhiser ,
Kristine Marceau  and
David Reiss
Jenae M. Neiderhiser*
Affiliation:
Pennsylvania State University
Kristine Marceau
Affiliation:
Pennsylvania State University
David Reiss
Affiliation:
Yale University Child Study Center
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Jenae M. Neiderhiser, Department of Psychology, Pennsylvania State University, 140 Moore Building, University Park, PA 16802; E-mail: jenaemn@psu.edu.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This study examined genetic and environmental influences on associations among marital conflict about the child, parental monitoring, sibling relationship negativity, and peer delinquency during adolescence and initiation of illegal drug use by young adulthood. The sample comprised data collected longitudinally from same-sex sibling pairs and parents when the siblings were 10–18 years old (M = 14.5 and 12.9 years for Child 1 and Child 2, respectively) and 20–35 years old (M = 26.8 and 25.5 years for Child 1 and Child 2, respectively). Findings indicate four factors that explain the initiation of illegal drug use: two shaped by genetic influences and two shaped by environments shared by siblings. The two genetically shaped factors probably have distinct mechanisms: one a child-initiated coercive process in the family and the other parent and peer processes shaped by the child's disclosure. The environmentally influenced factors seem distinctively shaped by poor parental monitoring of both sibs and the effects of siblings on each other's deviancy.

Type
Special Section Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 25 , Issue 1: Gene–Environment Correlation in Developmental Psychopathology , February 2013 , pp. 133 - 149
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2013

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Agrawal, A., & Lynskey, M. T. (2007). Does gender contribute to heterogeneity in criteria for cannabis abuse and dependence? Results from the national epidemiological survey on alcohol and related conditions. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 88, 300–307.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Agrawal, A., & Lynskey, M. T. (2008). Are there genetic influences on addiction: Evidence from family, adoption and twin studies. Addiction, 103, 1069–1081.Google Scholar
Amato, P. R. (1991). Psychological distress and the recall of childhood family characteristics. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 53, 1011–1019.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Avenevoli, S., & Merikangas, K. R. (2003). Familial influences on adolescent smoking. Addiction, 98, 1–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beaver, K. M., DeLisi, M., Wright, J. P., & Vaughn, M. G. (2009). Gene–environment interplay and delinquent involvement: Evidence of direct, indirect, and interactive effects. Journal of Adolescent Research, 24, 39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beaver, K. M., Shutt, J. E., Boutwell, B. B., Ratchford, M., Roberts, K., & Barnes, J. C. (2009). Genetic and environmental influences on levels of self-control and delinquent peer affiliation: Results from a longitudinal sample of adolescent twins. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 36, 8.Google Scholar
Brook, J. S., Kessler, R. C., & Cohen, P. (1999). The onset of marijuana use from preadolescence and early adolescence to young adulthood. Development and Psychopathology, 11, 901–914.Google Scholar
Brown, B. B., Mounts, N., Lamborn, S. D., & Steinberg, L. (1993). Parenting practices and peer group affiliation in adolescence. Child Development, 64, 467–482.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buehler, C., Benson, M. J., & Gerard, J. M. (2006). Interparental hostility and early adolescent problem behavior: The mediating role of specific aspects of parenting. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 16, 265–291.Google Scholar
Bullock, B. M., Deater-Deckard, K., & Leve, L. D. (2006). Deviant peer affiliation and problem behavior: A test of genetic and environmental influences. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 34, 29–41.Google Scholar
Burt, S. A. (2009). Rethinking environmental contributions to child and adolescent psychopathology: A meta-analysis of shared environmental influences. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 6.Google Scholar
Burt, S. A., Krueger, R. F., McGue, M., & Iacono, W. (2003). Parent–child conflict and the comorbidity among childhood externalizing disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60, 505–513.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burt, S. A., McGue, M., Krueger, R. F., & Iacono, W. G. (2005). How are parent–child conflict and childhood externalizing symptoms related over time? Results from a genetically informative cross-lagged study. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 145–165.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burt, S. A., McGue, M., Krueger, R. F., & Iacono, W. G. (2007). Environmental contributions to adolescent delinquency: A fresh look at the shared environment. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35, 787–800.Google Scholar
Bussell, D. A., Neiderhiser, J. M., Pike, A., Plomin, R., Simmens, S., Howe, G. W., et al. (1999). Adolescents' relationships to siblings and mothers: A multivariate genetic analysis. Developmental Psychology, 35, 1248–1259.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Button, T. M. M., Lau, J. Y. F., Maughan, B., & Eley, T. C. (2008). Parental punitive discipline, negative life events and gene–environment interplay in the development of externalizing behavior. Psychological Medicine, 38, 29–39.Google Scholar
Chen, C. Y., Storr, C. L., & Anthony, J. C. (2005). Influences of parenting practices on the risk of having a chance to try cannabis. Pediatrics, 115, 1631–1639.Google Scholar
Cheng, T. C., & Lo, C. C. (2010). The roles of parenting and child welfare services in alcohol use by adolescents. Children and Youth Services Review, 32, 38–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chilcoat, H. D., & Anthony, J. C. (1996). Impact of parent monitoring on initiation of drug use through late childhood. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 91–100.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cleveland, H. H., Wiebe, R. P., & Rowe, D. C. (2005). Sources of exposure to smoking and drinking friends among adolescents: A behavioral–genetic evaluation. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 166, 153–169.Google Scholar
Compton, K., Snyder, J., Schrepferman, L., Bank, L., & Shortt, J. W. (2003). The contribution of parents and siblings to antisocial and depressive behavior in adolescents: A double jeopardy coercion model. Development and Psychopathology, 15, 163–182.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Conger, R. D., Ge, X., Elder, G. H., Lorenz, F. O., & Simons, R. L. (1994). Economic stress, coercive family process, and developmental problems of adolescents. Child Development, 65, 541–561.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crano, W. D., Siegel, J. T., Alvaro, E. M., Lac, A., & Hemovich, V. (2008). The at-risk adolescent marijuana nonuser: Expanding the standard distinction. Prevention Science, 9, 129–137.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cummings, E. (1994). Marital conflict and children's functioning. Social Development, 3, 16–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cummings, E., & Davies, P. T. (2002). Effects of marital conflict on children: Recent advances and emerging themes in process-oriented research. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 43, 31–63.Google Scholar
Derringer, J., Krueger, R. F., McGue, M., & Iacono, W. G. (2008). Genetic and environmental contributions to the diversity of substances used in adolescent twins: A longitudinal study of age and sex effects. Addiction, 103, 3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dishion, T. J., Capaldi, D., Spracklen, K. M., & Li, F. (1995). Peer ecology of male adolescent drug use. Development and Psychopathology, 7, 803–824.Google Scholar
Dishion, T. J., Duncan, T. E., Eddy, J. M., Fagot, B. I., & Fetrow, R. (1994). The world of parents and peers: Coercive exchanges and children's social adaptation. Social Development, 3, 255–268.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dishion, T. J., & Loeber, R. (1985). Adolescent marijuana and alcohol use: The role of parents and peers revisited. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 11, 11–25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dishion, T. J., McCord, J., & Poulin, F. (1999). When interventions harm: Peer groups and problem behavior. American Psychologist, 54, 755–764.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dishion, T. J., & Owen, L. D. (2002). A longitudinal analysis of friendships and substance use: Bidirectional influence from adolescence to adulthood. Developmental Psychology, 38, 480–491.Google Scholar
Dishion, T. J., & Tipsord, J. M. (2011). Peer contagion in child and adolescent social and emotional development. Annual Review of Psychology, 62, 189–214.Google Scholar
Disney, E. R., Elkins, I. J., McGue, M., & Iacono, W. J. (1999). Effects of ADHD, conduct disorder, and gender on substance use and abuse in adolescence. American Journal of Psychiatry, 156, 1515–1521.Google Scholar
D'Onofrio, B. M., Turkheimer, E., Emery, R. E., Slutske, W. S., Heath, A. C., Madden, P. A., et al. (2005). A genetically informed study of marital instability and its association with offspring psychopathology. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 114, 570–586.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dorius, C. J., Bahr, S. J., Hoffmann, J. P., & Harmon, E. L. (2004). Parenting practices as moderators of the relationship between peers and adolescent marijuana use. Journal of Marriage and Family, 66, 163–178.Google Scholar
Duncan, S. C., Duncan, T. E., Biglan, A., & Ary, D. (1998). Contributions of the social context to the development of adolescent substance use: A multivariate latent growth modeling approach. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 50, 57–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eaves, L. J., Silberg, J. L., Maes, H. H., Simonoff, E., Pickles, A., Rutter, M., et al. (1997). Genetics and developmental psychopathology: 2. The main effects of genes and environment on behavioral problems in the Virginia Twin Study of Adolescent Behavioral Development. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 38, 965–980.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Elkins, I. J., Iacono, W. G., & Doyle, A. E. (1997). Characteristics associated with the persistence of antisocial behavior: Results from recent longitudinal research. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 2, 101–124.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Elkins, I. J., McGue, M., & Iacono, W. G. (1997). Genetic and environmental influences on parent–son relationships: Evidence for increasing genetic influence during adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 33, 351–363.Google Scholar
Elliott, D. S., & Huizinga, D. (1983). Social class and delinquent-behavior in a national youth panel—1976–1980. Criminology, 21, 149–177.Google Scholar
El-Sheikh, M., & Elmore-Staton, L. (2004). The link between marital conflict and child adjustment: Parent–child conflict and perceived attachments as mediators, potentiators, and mitigators of risk. Development and Psychopathology, 16, 631–648.Google Scholar
Ennett, S. T., Bauman, K. E., Hussong, A., Faris, R., Foshee, V. A., Cai, L., et al. (2006). The peer context of adolescent substance use: Findings from social network analysis. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 16, 159–186.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ernst, M., Luckenbaugh, D. A., Moolchan, E. T., Leff, M. K., Allen, R., Eshel, N., et al. (2006). Behavioral predictors of substance-use initiation in adolescents with and without attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pediatrics, 117, 2030–2039.Google Scholar
Evrony, H., Ulbricht, J., & Neiderhiser, J. M. (2010). Understanding gene, environment, and Gene × Environment interaction effects: The example of childhood externalizing disorders. In Tercyak, K. P. (Ed.), Handbook of genomics and the family: Psychosocial context for children and adolescents (pp. 59–86). New York: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Feinberg, M. E., Reiss, D., Neiderhiser, J. M., & Hetherington, E. M. (2005). Differential association of family subsystem negativity on siblings' maladjustment: Using behavior genetic methods to test process theory. Journal of Family Psychology, 19, 601–610.Google Scholar
Fletcher, A. C., Steinberg, L., & Williams-Wheeler, M. (2004). Parental influences on adolescent problem behavior: Revisiting Stattin and Kerr. Child Development, 75, 781–796.Google Scholar
Furman, W., & Buhrmester, D. (1985). Children's perceptions of the personal relationships in their social networks. Developmental Psychology, 21, 1016–1024.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gable, S., Belsky, J., & Crnic, K. (1992). Marriage, parenting, and child development: Progress and prospects. Journal of Family Psychology, 5, 276–294.Google Scholar
Ge, X., Conger, R. D., Cadoret, R. J., Neiderhiser, J. M., Yates, W., & Troughton, E. (1996). The developmental interface between nature and nurture: A mutual influence model of child antisocial behavior and parent behaviors. Developmental Psychology, 32, 574–589.Google Scholar
Gillespie, N. A., Neale, M. C., Jacobson, K., & Kendler, K. S. (2009). Modeling the genetic and environmental association between peer group deviance and cannabis use in male twins. Addiction, 104, 420–429.Google Scholar
Harakeh, Z., Neiderhiser, J. M., Spotts, E. L., Engels, R., Scholte, R. H. J., & Reiss, D. (2008). Genetic factors contribute to the association between peers and young adults smoking: Univariate and multivariate behavioral genetic analyses. Addictive Behaviors, 33, 1113–1122.Google Scholar
Harden, K. P., Turkheimer, E., Emery, R. E., D'Onofrio, B. M., Slutske, W. S., Heath, A. C., et al. (2007). Marital conflict and conduct problems in children of twins. Child Development, 78, 1–18.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harold, G. T., & Conger, R. D. (1997). Marital conflict and adolescent distress: The role of adolescent awareness. Child Development, 68, 333–350.Google Scholar
Helstrom, A., Bryan, A., Hutchison, K. E., Riggs, P. D., & Blechman, E. A. (2004). Tobacco and alcohol use as an explanation for the association between externalizing behavior and illicit drug use among delinquent adolescents. Prevention Science, 5, 267–277.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hetherington, E. M., & Clingempeel, W. G. (1992). Coping with marital transitions: A family systems perspective. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 57(2–3, Serial No. 227), 1–238.Google Scholar
Hetherington, E. M., Henderson, S. H., O'Connor, T. G., Insabella, G. M., Taylor, L., Anderson, E. R., et al. (1999). Adolescent siblings in stepfamilies: Family functioning and adolescent adjustment. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 64(4, Serial No. 259), 1–200.Google Scholar
Hopfer, C. J., Crowley, T. J., & Hewitt, J. K. (2003). Review of twin and adoption studies of adolescent substance use. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 42, 710–719.Google Scholar
Iervolino, A. C., Pike, A., Manke, B., Reiss, D., Hetherington, E., & Plomin, R. (2002). Genetic and environmental influences in adolescent peer socialization: Evidence from two genetically sensitive designs. Child Development, 73, 162–174.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jessor, R., Donovan, J. E., & Widmer, K. (1980). Psychosocial factors in adolescent alcohol and drug use: The 1978 National Sample Study and the 1974–78 Panel Study. Boulder, CO: University of Colorado, Institute of Behavioral Science.Google Scholar
Jessor, R., & Jessor, S. L. (1977). Problem behavior and psychosocial development. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Kandel, D. (1973). Adolescent marihuana use: Role of parents and peers. Science, 181, 1067–1070.Google Scholar
Kandel, D. B. (1978). Homophily, selection, and socialization in adolescent friendships. American Journal of Sociology, 84, 427–436.Google Scholar
Kendler, K. S. (2001). Twin studies of psychiatric illness: An update. Archives of General Psychiatry, 58, 1005–1014.Google Scholar
Kendler, K. S., & Baker, J. H. (2007). Genetic influences on measures of the environment: A systematic review. Psychological Medicine, 37, 615–626.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kendler, K. S., Jacobson, K. C., Gardner, C. O., Gillespie, N., Aggen, S. A., & Prescott, C. A. (2007). Creating a social world—A developmental twin study of peer-group deviance. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64, 958–965.Google Scholar
Kendler, K. S., Jacobson, K., Myers, J. M., & Eaves, L. J. (2008). A genetically informative developmental study of the relationship between conduct disorder and peer deviance in males. Psychological Medicine, 38, 1001–1011.Google Scholar
Kendler, K. S., Jacobson, K. C., Prescott, C. A., & Neale, M. C. (2003). Specificity of genetic and environmental risk factors for use and abuse/dependence of cannabis, cocaine, hallucinogens, sedatives, stimulants, and opiates in male twins. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 687–695.Google Scholar
Kendler, K. S., Karkowski, L. M., Corey, L. A., Prescott, C. A., & Neale, M. C. (1999). Genetic and environmental risk factors in the aetiology of illicit drug initiation and subsequent misuse in women. British Journal of Psychiatry, 175, 351–356.Google Scholar
Kendler, K. S., Karkowski, L. M., Neale, M. C., & Prescott, C. A. (2000). Illicit psychoactive substance use, heavy use, abuse, and dependence in a US population-based sample of male twins. Archives of General Psychiatry, 57, 261–269.Google Scholar
Kendler, K. S., Karkowski, L., & Prescott, C. A. (1999). Hallucinogen, opiate, sedative and stimulant use and abuse in a population-based sample of female twins. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 99, 368–376.Google Scholar
Kendler, K. S., Myers, J., & Prescott, C. A. (2007). Specificity of genetic and environmental risk factors for symptoms of cannabis, cocaine, alcohol, caffeine, and nicotine dependence. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64, 1313–1320.Google Scholar
Kendler, K. S., Schmitt, E., Aggen, S. H., & Prescott, C. A. (2008). Genetic and environmental influences on alcohol, caffeine, cannabis, and nicotine use from early adolescence to middle adulthood. Archives of General Psychiatry, 65, 674–682.Google Scholar
Kerr, M., & Stattin, H. K. (2000). What parents know, how they know it, and several forms of adolescent adjustment: Further support for a reinterpretation of monitoring. Developmental Psychology, 36, 366–380.Google Scholar
Kerr, M., Stattin, H., & Burk, W. J. (2010). A reinterpretation of parental monitoring in longitudinal perspective. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 20, 39–64.Google Scholar
Kiesner, J., Poulin, F., & Dishion, T. J. (2010). Adolescent substance use with friends moderating and mediating effects of parental monitoring and peer activity contexts. Merrill–Palmer Quarterly, 56, 529–556.Google Scholar
Kung, E. M., & Farrell, A. D. (2000). The role of parents and peers in early adolescent substance use: An examination of mediating and moderating effects. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 9, 509–528.Google Scholar
Lac, A., & Crano, W. D. (2009). Monitoring matters: Meta-analytic review reveals the reliable linkage of parental monitoring with adolescent marijuana use. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 4, 578–586.Google Scholar
Loeber, R., & Dishion, T. J. (1984). Boys who fight at home and school: Family conditions influencing cross-setting consistency. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 52, 759–768.Google Scholar
Lynskey, M. T., Agrawal, A., & Heath, A. C. (2010). Genetically informative research on adolescent substance use: Methods, findings, and challenges. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 49, 1202–1214.Google Scholar
Manke, B., McGuire, S., Reiss, D., Hetherington, E. M., & Plomin, R. (1995). Genetic contributions to adolescents' extrafamilial social interactions: Teachers, best friends, and peers. Social Development, 4, 238–256.Google Scholar
Martins, S. S., Storr, C. L., Alexandre, P. K., & Chilcoat, H. D. (2008). Adolescent ecstasy and other drug use in the National Survey of Parents and Youth: The role of sensation-seeking, parental monitoring and peer's drug use. Addictive Behaviors, 33, 919–933.Google Scholar
McGue, M., & Bouchard, T. J. Jr. (1984). Adjustment of twin data for the effects of age and sex. Behavior Genetics, 14, 325–343.Google Scholar
McGue, M., Sharma, A., & Benson, P. (1996). The effect of common rearing on adolescent adjustment: Evidence from a US adoption cohort. Developmental Psychology, 32, 604–613.Google Scholar
McHale, S. M., Bissell, J., & Kim, J. Y. (2009). Sibling relationship, family, and genetic factors in sibling similarity in sexual risk. Journal of Family Psychology, 23, 562–572.Google Scholar
Molina, B. S. G., & Pelham, W. E. (2003). Childhood predictors of adolescent substance use in a longitudinal study of children with ADHD. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 112, 497–507.Google Scholar
Narusyte, J., Andershed, A.-K., Neiderhiser, J. M., & Lichtenstein, P. (2007). Aggression as a mediator of genetic contributions to the association between negative parent–child relationships and adolescent antisocial behavior. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 16, 128–137.Google Scholar
Natsuaki, M. N., Ge, X., Reiss, D., & Neiderhiser, J. M. (2009). Aggressive behavior between siblings and the development of externalizing problems: Evidence from a genetically sensitive study. Developmental Psychology, 45, 11.Google Scholar
Neale, M. C. (1994). Mx: Statistical modeling (2nd ed.). Richmond, VA: Virginia Commonwealth University, Department of Psychiatry.Google Scholar
Neiderhiser, J. M., Reiss, D., & Hetherington, E. M. (2007). The Nonshared Environment in Adolescent Development (NEAD) Project: A longitudinal family study of twins and siblings from adolescence to young adulthood. Twin Research and Human Genetics, 10, 74–83.Google Scholar
Neiderhiser, J. M., Reiss, D., Hetherington, E., & Plomin, R. (1999). Relationships between parenting and adolescent adjustment over time: Genetic and environmental contributions. Developmental Psychology, 35, 680–692.Google Scholar
Neiderhiser, J. A., Reiss, D., Lichtenstein, P., Spotts, E. L., & Ganiban, J. (2007). Father–adolescent relationships and the role of genotype–environment correlation. Journal of Family Psychology, 21, 560–571.Google Scholar
Neiderhiser, J. M., Reiss, D., Pedersen, N. L., Lichtenstein, P., Spotts, E. L., & Hansson, K. (2004). Genetic and environmental influences on mothering of adolescents: A comparison of two samples. Developmental Psychology, 40, 335–351.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nichols, R. C., & Bilbro, W. C. (1966). The diagnosis of twin zygosity. Acta Geneticae et Statistica Medica, 16, 265–275.Google Scholar
Nonnemaker, J. M., Crankshaw, E. C., Shive, D. R., Hussin, A. H., & Farrelly, M. C. (2011). Inhalant use initiation among U.S. adolescents: Evidence from the National Survey of Parents and Youth using discrete-time survival analysis. Addictive Behaviors, 36, 878–881.Google Scholar
O'Connor, T. G., Deater-Deckard, K., Fulker, D., Rutter, M., & Plomin, R. (1998). Genotype–environment correlations in late childhood and early adolescence: Antisocial behavioral problems and coercive parenting. Developmental Psychology, 34, 970–981.Google Scholar
Patterson, G. (1982). Coercive family process: A social learning approach. Eugene, OR: Castalia.Google Scholar
Peterson, J. L., & Zill, N. (1986). Marital disruption, parent–child relationships and behavior problems in children. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 48, 295–307.Google Scholar
Pike, A., & Atzaba-Poria, N. (2003). Do sibling and friend relationships share the same temperamental origins? A twin study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 44, 598–611.Google Scholar
Pike, A., & Eley, T. C. (2009). Links between parenting and extra-familial relationships: Nature or nurture? Journal of Adolescence, 32, 519–533.Google Scholar
Pike, A., McGuire, S., Hetherington, E., & Reiss, D. (1996). Family environment and adolescent depressive symptoms and antisocial behavior: A multivariate genetic analysis. Developmental Psychology, 32, 590–604.Google Scholar
Pike, A., McGuire, S., Hetherington, E. M., Reiss, D., & Plomin, R. (1996). Family environment and adolescent depressive symptoms and antisocial behavior: A multivariate genetic analysis. Developmental Psychology, 32, 590–603.Google Scholar
Piko, B. F., & Kovacs, E. (2010). Do parents and school matter? Protective factors for adolescent substance use. Addictive Behaviors, 35, 53–56.Google Scholar
Plomin, R., Reiss, D., Hetherington, E., & Howe, G. W. (1994). Nature and nurture: Genetic contributions to measures of the family environment. Developmental Psychology, 30, 32–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Poulin, F., Kiesner, J., Pedersen, S., & Dishion, T. J. (2011). A short-term longitudinal analysis of friendship selection on early adolescent substance use. Journal of Adolescence, 34, 249–256.Google Scholar
Purcell, S. (2002). Variance components models for gene–environment interaction in twin analysis. Twin Research, 5, 554–571.Google Scholar
Rasbash, J., Jenkins, J., O'Connor, T. G., Tackett, J., & Reiss, D. (2011). A social relations model of observed family negativity and positivity using a genetically informative sample. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100, 474–491.Google Scholar
Reiss, D., Neiderhiser, J. M., Hetherington, E. M., & Plomin, R. (2000). The relationship code: Deciphering genetic and social influences on adolescent development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Rende, R., Slomkowski, C., Lloyd-Richardson, E., & Niaura, R. (2005). Sibling effects on substance use in adolescence: Social contagion and genetic relatedness. Journal of Family Psychology, 19, 611–618.Google Scholar
Rhee, S. H., Hewitt, J. K., Young, S. E., Corley, R. P., Crowley, T. J., & Stallings, M. C. (2003). Genetic and environmental influences on substance initiation, use, and problem use in adolescents. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60, 1256–1264.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rhee, S. H., & Waldman, I. D. (2002). Genetic and environmental influences on antisocial behavior: A meta-analysis of twin and adoption studies. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 490–529.Google Scholar
Rhoades, K. A., Leve, L. D., Harold, G. T., Neiderhiser, J. M., Shaw, D. S., & Reiss, D. (2011). Longitudinal pathways from marital hostility to child anger during toddlerhood: Genetic susceptibility and indirect effects via harsh parenting. Journal of Family Psychology, 25, 282–291.Google Scholar
Riggins-Caspers, K. M., Cadoret, R. J., Knutson, J. F., & Langbehn, D. (2003). Biology–environment interaction and evocative biology–environment correlation: Contributions of harsh discipline and parental psychopathology to problem adolescent behaviors. Behavior Genetics, 33, 205–220.Google Scholar
Rowe, D. C., & Gulley, B. L. (1992). Sibling effects on substance use and delinquency. Criminology, 30, 217–233.Google Scholar
Rowe, D. C., & Rogers, J. L. (1997). Behavioral genetics, adolescent deviance, and “d”: Contributions and issues. In Adams, G. R. (Ed.), Advances in adolescent psychology. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Schaefer, E., & Edgerton, M. (1981). The sibling inventory of behavior. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press.Google Scholar
Siebenbruner, J., Englund, M. M., Egeland, B., & Hudson, K. (2006). Developmental antecedents of late adolescence substance use patterns. Development and Psychopathology, 18, 551–571.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sieving, R. E., Perry, C. L., & Williams, C. L. (2000). Do friendships change behaviors, or do behaviors change friendships? Examining paths of influence in young adolescents' alcohol use. Journal of Adolescent Health, 26, 27–35.Google Scholar
Slomkowski, C., Rende, R., Conger, K. J., Simons, R. L., & Conger, R. D. (2001). Sisters, brothers, and delinquency: Evaluating social influence during early and middle adolescence. Child Development, 72, 271–283.Google Scholar
Slomkowski, C., Rende, R., Novak, S., Lloyd-Richardson, E., & Niaura, R. (2005). Sibling effects on smoking in adolescence: Evidence for social influence from a genetically informative design. Addiction, 100, 430–438.Google Scholar
Spitz, E., Moutier, R., Reed, T., Busnel, M. C., & Marchaland, C. (1996). Comparative diagnoses of twin zygosity by SSLP variant analysis, questionnaire, and dermatoglyphic analysis. Behavior Genetics, 26, 55–63.Google Scholar
Stattin, H., & Kerr, M. (2000). Parental monitoring: A reinterpretation. Child Development, 71, 1072–1085.Google Scholar
Stormshak, E. A., Comeau, C. A., & Shepard, S. A. (2004). The relative contribution of sibling deviance and peer deviance in the prediction of substance use across middle childhood. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 32, 635–649.Google Scholar
Straus, M. A. (1979). Measuring intrafamily conflict and violence: The Conflict Tactics (CT) Scales. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 41, 75–85.Google Scholar
Straus, M. A. (1987). Conflict Tactics Scales. In Freedman, N. & Sherman, R. (Eds.), Handbook of measurements for marriage and family therapy (pp. 159–161). New York: Brunner/Mazel.Google Scholar
Uhl, G. R., Drgon, T., Johnson, C., Li, C. Y., Contoreggi, C., Hess, J., et al. (2008). Molecular genetics of addiction and related heritable phenotypes: Genome-wide association approaches identify “connectivity constellation” and drug target genes with pleiotropic effects. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1141, 318–381.Google Scholar
Ulbricht, J. A., & Neiderhiser, J. M. (2010). Genotype–environment correlation and family relationships. Unpublished manuscript.Google Scholar
Walden, B., McGue, M., Iacono, W. G., Burt, S. A., & Elkins, I. (2004). Identifying shared environmental contributions to early substance use: The respective roles of peers and parents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 113, 440–450.Google Scholar
Windle, M. (2000). Parental, sibling, and peer influences on adolescent substance use and alcohol problems. Applied Developmental Science, 4, 98–110.Google Scholar
Wu, P., Liu, X. L., & Fan, B. (2010). Factors associated with initiation of ecstasy use among US adolescents: Findings from a national survey. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 106, 193–198.Google Scholar