Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-j824f Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-13T00:40:11.780Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The neuropsychology of conduct disorder

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  31 October 2008

Terrie E. Moffitt
Terrie E. Moffitt
Affiliation:
University of Otago, New Zealand
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This article reviews evidence from neuropsychological tests that brain dysfunction is a correlate of conduct disorder. Most studies report consistent findings of differential neuropsychological deficits for antisocial samples in verbal and “executive” functions. Neuropsychological measures are related to some of the best indicators of poor outcome for children with conduct symptoms, such as early onset, stability across time, hyperactive symptoms, and aggressiveness. Neuropsychological tests statistically predict variance in antisocial behavior independently of appropriate control variables. This article argues that neuropsychological variables warrant further study as possible causal factors for conduct disorder and presents one developmental perspective on how neuropsychological problems might contribute risk for conduct disorder.

Type
Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 5 , Issue 1-2 , Winter-Spring 1993 , pp. 135 - 151
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1993

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

American Psychiatric Association. (1987). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (3rd ed., rev.). Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
Barrett, G. V., & Depinet, R. L. (1991). A reconsideration of testing for competence rather than for intelligence. American Psychologist, 46, 1012–1024.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bell, R. Q., & Chapman, M. (1986). Child effects in studies using experimental or brief longitudinal approaches to socialization. Developmental Psychology, 22, 595–603.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benson, D. F., & Zaidel, E. (1985). The dual brain. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Berman, A., & Siegal, A. W. (1976). Adaptive and learning skills in juvenile delinquents: A neuropsychological analysis. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 9, 51–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Borecki, I. B., & Ashton, G. C. (1984). Evidence for a major gene influencing performance on a vocabulary test. Behavior Genetics, 14, 63–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brickman, A. S., McManus, M. M., Grapentine, W. L., & Alessi, N. (1984). Neuropsychological assessment of seriously delinquent adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 23, 453–457.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buss, D. M. (1981). Predicting parent-child interactions from children's activity level. Developmental Psychology, 17, 59–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buss, D. M., Block, J. H., & Block, J. (1980). Preschool activity level: Personality correlates and developmental implications. Child Development, 51, 401–408.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Camp, B. (1977). Verbal mediation in young aggressive boys. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 86, 145–153.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caspi, A., & Bem, D. J. (1990). Personality continuity and change across the life course. In Pervin, L. (Ed.), Handbook of personality theory and research (pp. 549–575). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Chess, S., & Thomas, A. (1987). Origins and evolution of behavior disorders: From infancy to early adult life. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Cohen, R. M., Semple, W. E., Gross, M., Holcomb, H. H., Dowling, M. S., & Nordahl, T. E. (1988). Functional localization of sustained attention: Comparison to sensory stimulation in the absence of instruction. Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychology and Behavioral Neurology, 1, 3–20.Google Scholar
Cravioto, J., & Arrieta, R. (1983). Malnutrition in childhood. In Rutter, M. (Ed.), Developmental neuropsychiatry (pp. 32–51). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Denno, D. J. (1989). Biology, crime and violence: New evidence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Elliott, F. A. (1978). Neurological aspects of antisocial behavior. In Reid, W. H. (Ed.), The psychopath (pp. 146–189). New York: Bruner/Mazel.Google Scholar
Eron, L. D., Huesmann, L. R., & Zelli, A. (1991). The role of parental variables in the learning of aggression. In Pepler, D. & Rubin, K. (Eds.), The development and treatment of childhood aggression (pp. 171–188). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Eysenck, H. J. (1977). Crime and personality. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.Google Scholar
Farrington, D. P., Loeber, R., & Van Kammen, W. B. (1990). Long-term criminal outcomes of hyperactivity-impulsivity-attention deficit and conduct problems in childhood. In Robins, L. N. & Rutter, M. R. (Eds.), Straight and devious pathways from childhood to adulthood (pp. 62–81). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Farrington, D., Ohlin, L., & Wilson, J. Q. (1986). Understanding and controlling crime. New York: Springer-Verlag.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fogel, C. A., Mednick, S. A., & Michelson, N. (1985). Minor physical anomalies and hyperactivity. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 72, 551–556.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Friedrich, W. N., & Boriskin, J. A. (1976). The role of the child in abuse. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 46, 580–590.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frodi, A. M., Laub, M. E., Leavitt, L. E., Donovan, W. L., Neff, C., & Sherry, D. (1978). Fathers' and mothers' responses to the faces and cries of normal and premature infants. Developmental Psychology, 14, 490–498.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frost, L. A., Moffitt, T. E., & McGee, R. (1989). Neuropsychological function and psychopathology in an unselected cohort of young adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 98, 307–313.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gorenstein, E. E. (1982). Frontal lobe functions in psychopaths. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 91, 368–379.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gorenstein, E. E., & Newman, J. P. (1980). Disinhibitory psychopathology: A new perspective and a model for research. Psychological Review, 87, 301–315.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haynes, J. P., & Bensch, M. (1981). The P > V sign of the WISC-R and recidivism in delinquents. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 49, 480–481.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Healy, W., & Bronner, A. F. (1936). New light on delinquency and its treatment. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Henry, B., Moffitt, T. E., & Silva, P. A. (1992). Disentangling delinquency and learning disability: Neuropsychological function and social support. The International Journal of Clinical Neuropsychology, 13, 1–6.Google Scholar
Hertzig, M. (1983). Temperament and neurological status. In Rutter, M. (Ed.), Developmental Neuropsychiatry (pp. 164–180). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Hinshaw, S. P. (1992). Externalizing behavior problems and academic underachievement in childhood and adolescence: Causal relationships and underlying mechanisms. Psychological Bulletin, 111, 127–155.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hirschi, T. (1969). Causes of delinquency. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Hirschi, T., & Hindelang, M. J. (1977). Intelligence and delinquency: A revisionist review. American Sociological Review, 42, 571–587.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hunter, R. S., Kilstrom, N., Kraybill, E. N., & Loda, F. (1978). Antecendants of child abuse and neglect in premature infants: A prospective study in a newborn intensive care unit. Pediatrics, 61, 629–635.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hurwitz, I., Bibace, R. M. A., Wolff, P. H., & Rowbotham, B. M. (1972). Neurological function of normal boys, delinquent boys, and boys with learning problems. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 35, 387–394.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaler, S. R., & Kopp, C. B. (1990). Compliance and comprehension in very young toddlers. Child Development, 61, 1997–2003.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kandel, E., Brennan, P., & Mednick, S. A. (1989). Minor physical anomalies and parental modeling of aggression predict to violent offending. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 78, 1–5.Google Scholar
Kandel, E., & Mednick, S. A. (1991). Perinatal complications predict violent offending. Criminology, 29, 519–530.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Karniski, W. M., Levine, M. D., Clarke, S., Palfrey, J. S., & Meltzer, L. J. (1982). A study of neurodevelopmental findings in early adolescent delinquents. Journal of Adolescent Health Care, 3, 151–159.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Knights, R. M., & Bakker, D. J. (Eds.). (1976). The neuropsychology of learning disorders. Baltimore, MD: University Park Press.Google Scholar
Kopp, C. (1982). Antecedents of self-regulation: A developmental perspective. Developmental Psychology, 18, 199–214.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kraemer, G. W. (1988). Speculations on the developmental neurobiology of protest and despair. In Simon, P., Soubrie, P., & Widlocher, D. (Eds.), Inquiry into schizophrenia and depression: Animal models of psychiatric disorders (pp. 101–147). Basel: Karger.Google Scholar
Krynicki, V. E. (1978). Cerebral dysfunction in repetitively assaultive offenders. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 166, 59–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lahey, B., Hartdagen, S. E., Frick, P. J., McBurnett, K., Connor, R., & Hynd, G. W. (1988). Conduct disorder: Parsing the confounded relation to parental divorce and antisocial personality. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 97, 334–337.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lee, C. L., & Bates, J. E. (1985). Mother-child interaction at age two years and perceived difficult temperament. Child Development, 56, 1314–1323.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lewis, D. O., Shanok, S. S., Pincus, J. H., & Glaser, G. H. (1979). Violent juvenile delinquents: Psychiatric, neurological, psychological and abuse factors. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 2, 307–319.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lezak, M. D. (1983). Neuropsychological assessment. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Loeber, R. (1988). The natural histories of juvenile conduct problems, substance use, and delinquency: Evidence for developmental progressions. In Lahey, B. B. & Kazdin, A. E. (Eds.), Advances in clinical child psychology (Vol. 11, pp. 73–124). New York: Plenum Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Loehlin, J. C. (1989). Partitioning environmental and genetic contributions to behavioral development. American Psychologist, 44, 1285–1292.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lou, H. C., Henriksen, L., & Bruhn, P. (1984). Focal cerebral hypoperfusion in children with dysphasia and/or attention deficit disorder. Archives of Neurology, 41, 825–892.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Luria, A. R. (1961). The role of speech in the regulation of normal and abnormal behavior. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Luria, A. R., & Hamskaya, E. D. (1964). Disturbance in the regulative role of speech with frontal lobe lesions. In Warren, J. M. & Akert, K. (Eds.), The frontal granular cortex and behavior (pp. 353–371). New York: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Lynam, D., Moffitt, T. E., & Stouthamer-Loeber, J. (in press). Explaining the relation between IQ and delinquency. Journal of Abnormal Psychology.Google Scholar
Lytton, H. (1990). Child and parent effects in boys' conduct disorder: A reinterpretation. Developmental Psychology, 26, 683–697.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maccoby, E. E., & Jacklin, C. N. (1983). The “person” characteristics of children and the family as environment. In Magnusson, D. & Allen, V. L. (Eds.), Human development: An interactional perspective (pp. 75–92). New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Maloney, M. P., & Ward, M. P. (1976). Psychological assessment: A conceptual approach. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Martin, N. G., Jardine, R., & Eaves, L. J. (1984). Is there only one set of genes for different abilities? Behavior Genetics, 14, 355–370.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meany, M. J., Aitken, D. H., van Berkel, C., Bhatnagar, S., & Sapolsky, R. M. (1988). Effect of neonatal handling on age-related impairments associated with the hippocampus. Science, 239, 766–768.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, L. J., Burdg, N. B., & Carpenter, D. (1980). Application of recategorized WISC-R scores of adjudicated adolescents. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 51, 187–191.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Milner, J. S., & McCanne, T. R. (1991). Neuropsychological correlates of physical child abuse. In Milner, J. S. (Ed.), Neuropsychology of aggression (pp. 131–145). Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Milowe, I. D., & Lowrie, R. S. (1964). The child's role in the battered child syndrome. Journal of Pediatrics, 65, 1079–1081.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moffitt, T. E. (1988). Neuropsychology and self reported early delinquency in an unselected birth cohort: A preliminary report from New Zealand. In Moffitt, T., Mednick, S., & Stack, S. A. (Eds.), Biological contributions to crime causation (pp. 93–120). New York: Martinus Nijhoff Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moffitt, T. E. (1990a). Juvenile delinquency and attention-deficit disorder: Developmental trajectories from age 3 to 15. Child Development, 61, 893–910.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moffitt, T. E. (1990b). The neuropsychology of delinquency: A critical review of theory and research. In Morris, N. & Tonry, M. (Eds.) Crime and justice (Vol. 12, pp. 99–169). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Moffitt, T. E., Gabrielli, W. F., & Mednick, S. A. (1981). Socioeconomic status, IQ, and delinquency. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 90, 152–156.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moffitt, T. E., & Heimer, K. (1988). Factoral analysis and construct validity of a research neuropsychological test battery. Unpublished manuscript, University of Wisconsin at Madison.Google Scholar
Moffitt, T. E., & Henry, B. (1989). Neuropsychological assessment of executive functions in selfreported delinquents. Development and Psychopathology, 1, 105–118.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moffitt, T. E., & Henry, B. (1991). Neuropsychological studies of juvenile delinquency and violence: A review. In Milner, J. (Ed.), The neuropsychology of aggression (pp. 67–91). Norwell, MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moffitt, T. E., & Silva, P. A. (1988a). IQ and delinquency: A direct test of the differential detection hypothesis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 97, 330–333.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moffitt, T. E., & Silva, P. A. (1988b). Neuropsychological deficit and self-reported delinquency in an unselected birth cohort. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 27, 233–240.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moffitt, T. E., & Silva, P. A. (1988c). Self-reported delinquency, neuropsychological deficit, and history of attention deficit disorder. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 16, 553–569.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Needleman, H. L., & Beringer, D. C. (1981). The epidemiology of low-level lead exposure in childhood. Journal of Child Psychiatry, 20, 496–512.Google ScholarPubMed
Newman, J. P. (1987). Reaction to punishment in extroverts and psychopaths: Implications for the impulsive behavior of disinhibited individuals. Journal of Research in Personality, 21, 464–480.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Newman, J. P., & Howland, E. (1989). The effect of incentives on Wisconsin Card Sorting Task performance in psychopaths. Unpublished manuscript, University of Wisconsin at Madison.Google Scholar
Newman, J. P., & Kosson, D. S. (1986). Passive avoidance learning in psychopathic and nonpsychopathic offenders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 95, 257–263.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Patterson, G. R. (1982). Coercive family process. Eugene, OR: Castalia.Google Scholar
Patterson, G. R. (1986a). Maternal behavior: Determinant or product for deviant child behavior? In Hartup, W. & Rubin, Z. (Eds.), Relationships and development (pp. 73–94). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Patterson, G. R. (1986b). Performance models for antisocial boys. American Psychologist, 41, 432–444.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Patterson, G. R., & Bank, L. (1990). Some amplifying mechanisms for pathologic processes in families. In Gunnar, M. R. & Phelen, E. (Eds.), Systems and development: The Minnesota Symposia on Child Psychology (Vol. 22, pp. 167–209). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Paulhus, D. L., & Martin, C. L. (1986). Predicting adult temperament from minor physical anomalies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 1235–1239.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Plomin, R. (1990). The role of inheritance in behavior. Science, 248, 183–188.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Plomin, R., Chipuer, H. M., & Loehlin, J. C. (1990). Behavioral genetics and personality. In Pervin, L. A. (Ed.), Handbook of personality theory and research (pp. 225–243). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Plomin, R., Nitz, K., & Rowe, D. C. (1990). Behavioral genetics and aggressive behavior in childhood. In Lewis, M. & Miller, S. M. (Eds.), Handbook of developmental psychopathology (pp. 119–133). New York: Plenum Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pontius, A. A. (1972). Neurological aspects in some type of delinquency, especially among juveniles: Toward a neurological model of ethical action. Adolescence, 7, 289–308.Google Scholar
Prentice, N. M., & Kelly, F. J. (1963). Intelligence and delinquency: A reconsideration. Journal of Social Psychology, 60, 327–337.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Raine, A. (1988). Evoked potentials and antisocial behavior. In Moffitt, T. & Mednick, S., (Eds.) Biological contributions to crime causation (pp. 14–39). Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.Google Scholar
Reiss, A. J., & Rhodes, A. L. (1961). The distribution of juvenile delinquency in the social class structure. American Sociological Review, 26, 720–732.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robins, L. N. (1966). Deviant children grown up. Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins.Google Scholar
Robins, L. N. (1978). Sturdy childhood predictors of adult antisocial behaviour: Replications from longitudinal studies. Psychological Medicine, 8, 611–622.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rodning, C., Beckwith, L., & Howard, J. (1989). Characteristics of attachment organization and play organization in prenatally drug-exposed toddlers. Development and Psychopathology, 1, 277–289.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rothbart, M. K., & Derryberry, D. (1981). Development of individual differences in temperament. In Lamb, M. E. & Brown, A. L. (Eds.), Advances in developmental psychology (Vol. I, pp. 37–66). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Rourke, B. P. (1985). Statistical analysis of large neuropsychological data bases: Methodological and clinical considerations. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 7, 631.Google Scholar
Rourke, B. P., & Fiske, J. L. (1981). Socio-emotional disturbances of learning disabled children: The role of central processing deficits. Bulletin of the Orton Society, 31, 77–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rutter, M. (1977). Brain damage syndromes in childhood: Concepts and findings. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 18, 1–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rutter, M. (Ed.). (1983a). Developmental neuropsychiatry. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Rutter, M. (1983b). Issues and prospects in developmental neuropsychiatry. In Rutter, M. (Ed.), Developmental neuropsychiatry (pp. 577–598). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Sameroff, A., & Chandler, M. (1975). Reproductive risk and the continuum of caretaking casualty. In Horowitz, F., Hetherington, M., Scair-Salapatek, S., & Siegel, G. (Eds.), Review of child development research (Vol. 4, pp. 187–244). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Sandgrund, A. K., Gaines, R., & Green, A. (1974). Child abuse and mental retardation: A problem of cause and effect. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 79, 327–330.Google Scholar
Savitsky, J. C., & Czyzewski, D. (1978). The reaction of adolescent offenders and nonoffenders to non-verbal emotional displays. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 6, 89–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scarr, S., & McCartney, K. (1983). How people make their own environments: A theory of genotype → environment effects. Child Development, 54, 424–435.Google Scholar
Shapiro, S. K., Quay, H. C., Hogan, A. E., & Schwartz, K. P. (1988). Response perseveration and delayed responding in undersocialized aggressive conduct. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 97, 371–373.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Short, J. F., & Strodtbeck, F. L. (1965). Group process and gang delinquency. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Shulman, H. M. (1992). A study of problem boys and their brothers. Albany: New York State Crime Commission.Google Scholar
Skoff, B. F., & Libon, J. (1987). Impaired executive functions in a sample of male juvenile delinquents. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 9, 60.Google Scholar
Snyder, J. J. (1977). Reinforcement analysis of inter-action in problem and non-problem families. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 86, 528–535.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Snyder, J., & Patterson, G. (1987). Family interaction and delinquent behavior. In Quay, H. (Ed.), Hand-book of juvenile delinquency (pp. 216–243). New York: John Wiley and Sons.Google Scholar
Sobotowicz, W., Evans, J. R., & Laughlin, J. (1987). Neuropsychological function and social support in delinquency and learning disability. The International Journal of Clinical Neuropsychology, 9, 178–186.Google Scholar
Stamm, J. S., & Kreder, S. V. (1979). Minimal brain dysfunction: Psychological and neuropsychological disorders in hyperkinetic children. In Gazzaniga, M. (Ed.), Handbook of behavioral neurology: Vol. 2. Neuropsychology (pp. 119–152). New York: Plenum Press.Google Scholar
Stewart, A. (1983). Severe perinatal hazards. In Rutter, M. (Ed.), Developmental neuropsychiatry (pp. 15–31). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Stuss, D. T., & Benson, D. F. (1986). The frontal lobes. New York: Raven Press.Google Scholar
Szatmari, P., Reitsma-Street, M., & Offord, D. (1986). Pregnancy and birth complications in anti-social adolescents and their siblings. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 31, 513–516.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tambs, K., Sundet, J. M., & Magnus, P. (1984). Heritability analysis of the TAIS subtests: A study of twins. Intelligence, 8, 283–293.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tarter, R. E., Hegedus, A. M., Alterman, A. L., & Katz-Garris, L. (1983). Cognitive capacities of juvenile violent, nonviolent, and sexual offenders. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 171, 564–567.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tarter, R. E., Hegedus, A. M., Winsten, N. E., & Alterman, A. L. (1984). Neuropsychological, personality, and familial characteristics of physically abused delinquents. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 23, 668–674.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thomas, A., & Chess, S. (1977). Temperament and development. New York: Brunner/Mazel.Google Scholar
Tinsley, B. R., & Parke, R. D. (1983). The person-environment relationship: Lessons from families with preterm infants. In Magnusson, D. & Allen, V. L. (Eds.), Human development: An interactional perspective (pp. 93–110). New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Vandenberg, S. G. (1969). A twin study of spatial ability. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 4, 273–294.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Walsh, A., Petee, T. A., & Beyer, J. A. (1987). Intellectual imbalance and delinquency: Comparing high verbal and high performance IQ delinquents. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 14(3), 370–379.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Waters, E., Vaughan, B., & Egeland, B. (1980). Individual differences in infant-mother attachment: Antecedents in neonatal behavior in an urban economically disadvantaged sample. Child Development, 51, 208–216.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wechsler, D. (1944). The measurement of adult intelligence (3rd ed.). Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins.Google Scholar
Wender, P. H. (1971). Minimal brain dysfunction in children. New York: Wiley.Google ScholarPubMed
Werner, E., Simonian, K., Bierman, J., & French, F. (1967). Cumulative effect of perinatal complications and deprived environment on physical, intellectual, and social development of preschool children. Pediatrics, 39, 490–505.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
West, D. J., & Farrington, D. P. (1973). Who becomes delinquent? London: Heinemann Educational Books.Google Scholar
White, J., Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Needles, D., & Stouthamer-Loeber, M. (in press). Impulsivity and its relationship to juvenile delinquency. Journal of Abnormal Psychology.Google Scholar
White, J., Moffitt, T. E., Earls, F., Robins, L. N., & Silva, P. A. (1990). How early can we tell? Pre-school predictors of boys' conduct disorder and delinquency. Criminology, 28, 507–533.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
White, J., Moffitt, T. E., & Silva, P. A. (1989). A prospective replication of the protective effects of IQ in subjects at high risk for juvenile delinquency. Journal of Clinical and Consulting Psychology, 57, 719–724.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
White, J., Moffitt, T. E., & Silva, P. A. (1992). Specific arithmetic disability: Neuropsychological and socio-emotional correlates. Archives of Neuropsychology, 7, 1–16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilson, J. Q., & Herrnstein, R. J. (1985). Crime and human nature. New York: Simon and Schuster.Google Scholar
Wolff, P. H., Waber, D., Bauermeister, M., Cohen, C., & Ferber, R. (1982). The neuropsychological status of adolescent delinquent boys. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 23, 267–279.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wolfgang, M. E., Figlio, R. M., & Sellin, T. (1972). Delinquency in a birth cohort. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Yeudall, L. T. (1980). A neuropsychological perspective of persistent juvenile delinquency and criminal behavior. Annals of the New York Academy of Science, 347, 349–355.CrossRefGoogle Scholar