Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-8ctnn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-28T19:34:24.050Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Prenatal intimate partner violence exposure predicts infant biobehavioral regulation: Moderation by the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) gene

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 August 2018

Cecilia Martinez-Torteya ,
Caleb J. Figge ,
Michelle A. Gilchrist ,
Maria Muzik ,
Anthony P. King  and
Matthew Sorenson
Cecilia Martinez-Torteya*
Affiliation:
DePaul University Universidad de Monterrey
Caleb J. Figge
Affiliation:
DePaul University
Michelle A. Gilchrist
Affiliation:
DePaul University
Maria Muzik
Affiliation:
University of Michigan
Anthony P. King
Affiliation:
University of Michigan
Matthew Sorenson
Affiliation:
DePaul University
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Cecilia Martinez-Torteya, 2219 N Kenmore Ave., Chicago, IL 60614; E-mail: cmart121@depaul.edu.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The ability to regulate stress is a critical developmental milestone of early childhood that involves a set of interconnected behavioral and physiological processes and is influenced by genetic and environmental stimuli. Prenatal exposure to traumatic stress and trauma, including intimate partner violence (IPV), increases risk for offspring biobehavioral regulation problems during childhood and adolescence. Although individual differences in susceptibility to prenatal stress have been largely unexplored, a handful of studies suggest children with specific genetic characteristics are most vulnerable to prenatal stress. We evaluated the brain-derived neurotrophic factor Val66Met gene (BDNF) as a moderator of the effect of prenatal IPV exposure on infant temperamental and cortisol regulation in response to a psychosocial challenge. Ninety-nine mother–infant dyads recruited from the community were assessed when infants (51% female) were 11 to 14 months. Maternal reports of IPV during pregnancy and infant temperament were obtained, and infant saliva was collected for genotyping and to assess cortisol reactivity (before and after the Strange Situation Task). Significant genetic moderation effects were found. Among infants with the BDNF Met allele, prenatal IPV predicted worse temperamental regulation and mobilization of the cortisol response, while controlling for infant postnatal exposure to IPV, other maternal traumatic experiences, and infant sex. However, prenatal IPV exposure was not associated with temperamental or cortisol outcomes among infant carriers of the Val/Val genotype. Findings are discussed in relation to prenatal programming and biological susceptibility to stress.

Type
Special Issue Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 30 , Special Issue 3: Developmental Origins of Psychopathology: Mechanisms, Processes, and Pathways Linking the Prenatal Environment to Postnatal Outcomes , August 2018 , pp. 1009 - 1021
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2018 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

This research was supported in part by DePaul University Research Council grants. We thank the study participants and research staff, as well as Caitlin Karver for her technical assistance.

References

Ainsworth, M. D. S., & Bell, S. M. (1970). Attachment, exploration, and separation: Illustrated by the behavior of one-year-olds in a strange situation. Child Development, 41, 49–67.Google Scholar
Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. N. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Bailey, B. A. (2010). Partner violence during pregnancy: Prevalence, effects, screening, and management. International Journal of Women's Health, 2, 183–197.Google Scholar
Beijers, R., Riksen-Walraven, J. M., & de Weerth, C. (2013). Cortisol regulation in 12-month-old human infants: Associations with the infants' early history of breastfeeding and co-sleeping. Stress, 16, 267–277.Google Scholar
Bekinschtein, P., Cammarota, M., Katche, C., Slipczuk, L., Rossato, J. I., Goldin, A., … & Medina, J. H. (2008). BDNF is essential to promote persistence of long-term memory storage. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 105, 2711–2716.Google Scholar
Bergman, K., Sarkar, P., Glover, V., & O'Connor, T. G. (2008). Quality of child–parent attachment moderates the impact of antenatal stress on child fearfulness. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49, 1089–1098.Google Scholar
Bergman, K., Sarkar, P., O'Connor, T. G., Modi, N., & Glover, V. (2007). Maternal stress during pregnancy predicts cognitive ability and fearfulness in infancy. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 46, 1454–1463.Google Scholar
Bergman, O., Westberg, L., Lichtenstein, P., Eriksson, E., & Larsson, H. (2011). Study on the possible association of brain-derived neurotrophic factor polymorphism with the developmental course of symptoms of attention deficit and hyperactivity. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology, 14, 1367–1376.Google Scholar
Bernard, K., & Dozier, M. (2010). Examining infants' cortisol responses to laboratory tasks among children varying in attachment disorganization: Stress reactivity or return to baseline? Developmental Psychology, 46, 1771.Google Scholar
Bogat, G. A., Martinez-Torteya, C., Levendosky, A. A., von Eye, A., & Lonstein, J. (2016). Intimate partner violence, mental health, and HPA axis functioning. Journal of Person-Oriented Research, 2, 111–122.Google Scholar
Boersma, G. J., Lee, R. S., Cordner, Z. A., Ewald, E. R., Purcell, R. H., Moghadam, A. A., & Tamashiro, K. L. (2014). Prenatal stress decreases Bdnf expression and increases methylation of Bdnf exon IV in rats. Epigenetics, 9, 437–447.Google Scholar
Braithwaite, E. C., Kundakovic, M., Ramchandani, P. G., Murphy, S. E., & Champagne, F. A. (2015). Maternal prenatal depressive symptoms predict infant NR3C1 1F and BDNF IV DNA methylation. Epigenetics, 10, 408–417.Google Scholar
Burke, J. G., Lee, L. C., & O'Campo, P. (2008). An exploration of maternal intimate partner violence experiences and infant general health and temperament. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 12, 172–179.Google Scholar
Campbell, J. C. (2002). Health consequences of intimate partner violence. Lancet, 359, 1331–1336.Google Scholar
Charles, P., & Perreira, K. M. (2007). Intimate partner violence during pregnancy and 1-year post-partum. Journal of Family Violence, 22, 609–619.Google Scholar
Chau, C. M. Y., Cepeda, I. L., Devlin, A. M., Weinberg, J., & Grunau, R. E. (2017). The Val66Met brain-derived neurotrophic factor gene variant interacts with early pain exposure to predict cortisol dysregulation in 7-year-old children born very preterm: Implications for cognition. Neuroscience, 342, 188–199.Google Scholar
Chen, L., Pan, H., Tuan, T. A., Teh, A. L., MacIsaac, J. L., Mah, S. M., … Buschdorf, J. P. (2015). Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) Val66Met polymorphism influences the association of the methylome with maternal anxiety and neonatal brain volumes. Development and Psychopathology, 27, 137–150.Google Scholar
Chen, Z. Y., Patel, P. D., Sant, G., Meng, C. X., Teng, K. K., Hempstead, B. L., & Lee, F. S. (2004). Variant brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)(Met66) alters the intracellular trafficking and activity-dependent secretion of wild-type BDNF in neurosecretory cells and cortical neurons. Journal of Neuroscience, 24, 4401–4411.Google Scholar
Chu, S. Y., Goodwin, M. M., & D'Angelo, D. V. (2010). Physical violence against US women around the time of pregnancy, 2004–2007. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 38, 317–322.Google Scholar
Coker, A. L., Sanderson, M., & Dong, B. (2004). Partner violence during pregnancy and risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes. Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology, 18, 260–269.Google Scholar
Corbett, B. A., Schupp, C. W., Simon, D., Ryan, N., & Mendoza, S. (2010). Elevated cortisol during play is associated with age and social engagement in children with autism. Molecular Autism, 1, 1–13.Google Scholar
Davidson, R. J., Putnam, K. M., & Larson, C. L. (2000). Dysfunction in the neural circuitry of emotion regulation—A possible prelude to violence. Science, 289, 591–594.Google Scholar
Davis, E. P., Glynn, L. M., Schetter, C. D., Hobel, C., Chicz-Demet, A., & Sandman, C. A. (2007). Prenatal exposure to maternal depression and cortisol influences infant temperament. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 46, 737–746.Google Scholar
Donzella, B., Gunnar, M. R., Krueger, W. K., & Alwin, J. (2000). Cortisol and vagal tone responses to competitive challenge in preschoolers: Associations with temperament. Developmental Psychobiology, 37, 209–220.Google Scholar
Dougherty, L. R., Klein, D. N., Congdon, E., Canli, T., & Hayden, E. P. (2010). Interaction between 5-HTTLPR and BDNF Val66Met polymorphisms on HPA axis reactivity in preschoolers. Biological Psychology, 83, 93–100.Google Scholar
Egliston, K. A., McMahon, C., & Austin, M. P. (2007). Stress in pregnancy and infant HPA axis function: Conceptual and methodological issues relating to the use of salivary cortisol as an outcome measure. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 32, 1–13.Google Scholar
Else-Quest, N. M., Hyde, J. S., Goldsmith, H. H., & Van Hulle, C. A. (2006). Sex differences in temperament: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 33.Google Scholar
Enlow, M. B., Kitts, R. L., Blood, E., Bizarro, A., Hofmeister, M., & Wright, R. J. (2011). Maternal posttraumatic stress symptoms and infant emotional reactivity and emotion regulation. Infant Behavior and Development, 34, 487–503.Google Scholar
Fortunato, C. K. (2009 ). Patterns of adrenocortical reactivity and recovery to emotional challenges in early childhood: Relations to child temperament and parenting quality (Master's thesis, Pennsylvania State University).Google Scholar
Fox, J. (2002). Bootstrapping regression models. An R and S-PLUS companion to applied regression: A web appendix to the book. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Retrieved from http://r-project.org/doc/contrib/Fox-Companion/appendix-bootstrapping.Google Scholar
Frustaci, A., Pozzi, G., Gianfagna, F., Manzoli, L., & Boccia, S. (2008). Meta-analysis of the brain-derived neurotrophic factor gene (BDNF) Val66Met polymorphism in anxiety disorders and anxiety-related personality traits. Neuropsychobiology, 58, 163–170.Google Scholar
Gartstein, M. A., & Rothbart, M. K. (2003). Studying infant temperament via the revised Infant Behavior Questionnaire. Infant Behavior and Development, 26, 64–86.Google Scholar
Gazmarian, J. A., Lazorick, S., Spitz, A. M., Ballard, T. J., Saltzman, L. E., & Marks, J. S. (1996). Prevalence of violence against women. Journal of the American Medical Association, 275, 1915–1920.Google Scholar
Giusti, L., Provenzi, L., Tavian, D., Missaglia, S., Butti, N., & Montirosso, R. (2017). The BDNF val66met polymorphism and individual differences in temperament in 4-month-old infants: A pilot study. Infant Behavior and Development, 47, 22–26.Google Scholar
Givalois, L., Naert, G., Rage, F., Ixart, G., Arancibia, S., & Tapia-Arancibia, L. (2004). A single brain-derived neurotrophic factor injection modifies hypothalamo–pituitary–adrenocortical axis activity in adult male rats. Molecular and Cellular Neuroscience, 27, 280–295.Google Scholar
Goldberg, S., Levitan, R., Leung, E., Masellis, M., Basile, V. S., Nemeroff, C. B., & Atkinson, L. (2003). Cortisol concentrations in 12- to 18-month-old infants: Stability over time, location, and stressor. Biological Psychiatry, 54, 719–726.Google Scholar
Granger, D. A., Hibel, L. C., Fortunato, C. K., & Kapelewski, C. H. (2009). Medication effects on salivary cortisol: Tactics and strategy to minimize impact in behavioral and developmental science. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 34, 1437–1448.Google Scholar
Granger, D. A., Weisz, J. R., McCracken, J. T., Ikeda, S. C., & Douglas, P. (1996). Reciprocal influences among adrenocortical activation, psychosocial processes, and the behavioral adjustment of clinic-referred children. Child Development, 67, 3250–3262.Google Scholar
Green, B. L., Goodman, L. A., Krupnick, J. L., Corcoran, C. B., Petty, R. M., Stockton, P., & Stern, N. M. (2000). Outcomes of single versus multiple trauma exposure in a screening sample. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 13, 271–286.Google Scholar
Grizenko, N., Fortier, M. E., Zadorozny, C., Thakur, G., Schmitz, N., Duval, R., & Joober, R. (2012). Maternal stress during pregnancy, ADHD symptomatology in children and genotype: Gene-environment interaction. Journal of the Canadian Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 21, 9.Google Scholar
Gunnar, M. R., Larson, M. C., Hertsgaard, L., Harris, M. L., & Brodersen, L. (1992). The stressfulness of separation among nine-month-old infants: Effects of social context variables and infant temperament. Child Development, 63, 290–303.Google Scholar
Gunnar, M. R., Mangelsdorf, S., Larson, M., & Hertsgaard, L. (1989). Attachment, temperament, and adrenocortical activity in infancy: A study of psychoendocrine regulation. Developmental Psychology, 25, 355.Google Scholar
Gunnar, M. R., Talge, N. M., & Herrera, A. (2009). Stressor paradigms in developmental studies: What does and does not work to produce mean increases in salivary control. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 34, 953–967.Google Scholar
Gunnar, M. R., Wenner, J. A., Thomas, K. M., Glatt, C. E., Mckenna, M. C., & Clark, A. G. (2012). The brain-derived neurotrophic factor Val66Met polymorphism moderates early deprivation effects on attention problems. Development and Psychopathology, 24, 1215–1223.Google Scholar
Gutteling, B. M., de Weerth, C., & Buitelaar, J. K. (2005). Prenatal stress and children's cortisol reaction to the first day of school. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 30, 541–549.Google Scholar
Harrykissoon, S. D., Rickert, V. I., & Wiemann, C. M. (2002). Prevalence and patterns of intimate partner violence among adolescent mothers during the postpartum period. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 156, 325–330.Google Scholar
Hayden, E. P., Klein, D. N., Dougherty, L. R., Olino, T. M., Dyson, M. W., Durbin, C. E., … Singh, S. M. (2010). The role of BDNF genotype, parental depression, and relationship discord in predicting early-emerging negative emotionality. Psychological Science, 21, 1678.Google Scholar
Hayes, A. F. (2013). Methodology in the social sciences: Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-base approach. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Hertsgaard, L., Gunnar, M., Erickson, M. F., & Nachmias, M. (1995). Adrenocortical responses to the strange situation in infants with disorganized/disoriented attachment relationships. Child Development, 66, 1100–1106.Google Scholar
Holmes, P., & Farnfield, S. (2014). ABC + D of attachment theory: The strange situation procedure as the gold standard of attachment assessment. In Holmes, P. & Farnfield, S. (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of attachment: Theory (pp. 25–44). Hove: Routledge.Google Scholar
Honjo, S., Mizuno, R., Sechiyama, H., Sasaki, Y., Kaneko, H., Nishide, T., … Nishide, Y. (2002). Temperament of low birth weight infants and child-rearing stress: Comparison with full-term healthy infants. Early Child Development and Care, 172, 65–75.Google Scholar
Horner, M. S., Reynolds, M., Braxter, B., Kirisci, L., & Tarter, R. E. (2015). Temperament disturbances measured in infancy progress to substance use disorder 20 years later. Personality and Individual Differences, 82, 96–101.Google Scholar
Horwitz, A. V., Widom, C. S., McLaughlin, J., & White, H. R. (2001). The impact of childhood abuse and neglect on adult mental health: A prospective study. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 42, 184–201.Google Scholar
Hosang, G. M., Shiles, C., Tansey, K. E., McGuffin, P., & Uher, R. (2014). Interaction between stress and the BDNF Val66Met polymorphism in depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Medicine, 12, 7.Google Scholar
Huizink, A. C., de Medina, P. G. R., Mulder, E. J., Visser, G. H., & Buitelaar, J. K. (2002). Psychological measures of prenatal stress as predictors of infant temperament. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 41, 1078–1085.Google Scholar
Huth-Bocks, A. C., Levendosky, A. A., Bogat, G. A., & von Eye, A. (2004). The impact of maternal characteristics and contextual variables on infant–mother attachment. Child Development, 75, 480–496.Google Scholar
Jansen, J., Beijers, R., Riksen-Walraven, M., & de Weerth, C. (2010). Cortisol reactivity in young infants. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 35, 329–338.Google Scholar
Jasinski, J. L. (2004). Pregnancy and domestic violence: A review of the literature. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 5, 47–64.Google Scholar
Jones, N. T., Ji, P., Beck, M., & Beck, N. (2002). The reliability and validity of the revised Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS2) in a female incarcerated population. Journal of Family Issues, 23, 441–457.Google Scholar
Jun, H. J., Rich-Edwards, J. W., Boynton-Jarrett, R., & Wright, R. J. (2008). Intimate partner violence and cigarette smoking: Association between smoking risk and psychological abuse with and without co-occurrence of physical and sexual abuse. American Journal of Public Health, 98, 527–535.Google Scholar
Keenan, K. (2000). Emotion dysregulation as a risk factor for child psychopathology. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 7, 418–434.Google Scholar
Kuczewski, N., Porcher, C., & Gaiarsa, J. L. (2010). Activity-dependent dendritic secretion of brain-derived neurotrophic factor modulates synaptic plasticity. European Journal of Neuroscience, 32, 1239–1244.Google Scholar
La Greca, A. M., Lai, B. S., Joormann, J., Auslander, B. B., & Short, M. A. (2013). Children's risk and resilience following a natural disaster: Genetic vulnerability, posttraumatic stress, and depression. Journal of Affective Disorders, 151, 860–867.Google Scholar
Lang, U. E., Hellweg, R., Kalus, P., Bajbouj, M., Lenzen, K. P., Sander, T., … Gallinat, J. (2005). Association of a functional BDNF polymorphism and anxiety-related personality traits. Psychopharmacology, 180, 95–99.Google Scholar
Leve, L. D., Kim, H. K., & Pears, K. C. (2005). Childhood temperament and family environment as predictors of internalizing and externalizing trajectories from ages 5 to 17. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 33, 505–520.Google Scholar
Levendosky, A. A., Bogat, G. A., Lonstein, J. S., Martinez-Torteya, C., Muzik, M., Granger, D. A., & von Eye, A. (2016). Infant adrenocortical reactivity and behavioral functioning: Relation to early exposure to maternal intimate partner violence. Stress, 19, 37–44.Google Scholar
Levendosky, A. A., Leahy, K. L., Bogat, G. A., Davidson, W. S., & von Eye, A. (2006). Domestic violence, maternal parenting, maternal mental health, and infant externalizing behavior. Journal of Family Psychology, 20, 544.Google Scholar
Liening, S. H., Stanton, S. J., Saini, E. K., & Schultheiss, O. C. (2010). Salivary testosterone, cortisol, and progesterone: Two-week stability, interhormone correlations, and effects of time of day, menstrual cycle, and oral contraceptive use on steroid hormone levels. Physiology & Behavior, 99, 8–16.Google Scholar
Lopez-Duran, N. L., Kovacs, M., & George, C. J. (2009). Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis dysregulation in depressed children and adolescents: A meta-analysis. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 34, 1272–1283.Google Scholar
Luijk, M. P., Saridjan, N., Tharner, A., van IJzendoorn, M. H., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., Jaddoe, V. W., … Tiemeier, H. (2010). Attachment, depression, and cortisol: Deviant patterns in insecure-resistant and disorganized infants. Developmental Psychobiology, 52, 441–452.Google Scholar
Luijk, M. P., Velders, F. P., Tharner, A., van IJzendoorn, M. H., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., Jaddoe, V. W., … Tiemeier, H. (2010). FKBP5 and resistant attachment predict cortisol reactivity in infants: Gene–environment interaction. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 35, 1454–1461.Google Scholar
Main, M., & Solomon, J., (1990). Procedures for identifying infants as disorganized/disoriented during the Ainsworth Strange Situation. In Greenberg, M. T., Cucchetti, D., & Cummings, E. M. (Eds.), Attachment in the preschool years: Theory, research, and intervention (Vol. 1, pp. 121–160). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Martin, S. L., Beaumont, J. L., & Kupper, L. L. (2003). Substance use before and during pregnancy: Links to intimate partner violence. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 29, 599–617.Google Scholar
Martin, S. L., Harris-Britt, A., Li, Y., Moracco, K. E., Kupper, L. L., & Campbell, J. C. (2004). Changes in intimate partner violence during pregnancy. Journal of Family Violence, 19, 201–210.Google Scholar
Martinez-Torteya, C., Bogat, G. A., Levendosky, A. A., & von Eye, A. (2016). The influence of prenatal intimate partner violence exposure on hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis reactivity and childhood internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Development and Psychopathology, 28, 55–72.Google Scholar
Martinez-Torteya, C., Dayton, C. J., Beeghly, M., Seng, J. S., McGinnis, E., Broderick, A., … Muzik, M. (2014). Maternal parenting predicts infant biobehavioral regulation among women with a history of childhood maltreatment. Development and Psychopathology, 26, 379–392.Google Scholar
McMahon, E., Wintermark, P., & Lahav, A. (2012). Auditory brain development in premature infants: The importance of early experience. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1252, 17–24.Google Scholar
Möhler, E., Parzer, P., Brunner, R., Wiebel, A., & Resch, F. (2006). Emotional stress in pregnancy predicts human infant reactivity. Early Human Development, 82, 731–737.Google Scholar
Monk, C., Spicer, J., & Champagne, F. A. (2012). Linking prenatal maternal adversity to developmental outcomes in infants: The role of epigenetic pathways. Development and Psychopathology, 24, 1361–1376.Google Scholar
Nachmias, M., Gunnar, M., Mangelsdorf, S., Parritz, R. H., & Buss, K. (1996). Behavioral inhibition and stress reactivity: The moderating role of attachment security. Child Development, 67, 508–522.Google Scholar
Naert, G., Ixart, G., Maurice, T., Tapia-Arancibia, L., & Givalois, L. (2011). Brain-derived neurotrophic factor and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis adaptation processes in a depressive-like state induced by chronic restraint stress. Molecular and Cellular Neuroscience, 46, 55–66.Google Scholar
Newton, R. R., Connelly, C. D., & Landsverk, J. A. (2001). An examination of measurement characteristics and factorial validity of the Revised Conflict Tactics Scale. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 61, 317–335.Google Scholar
O'Connor, T. G., Heron, J., Golding, J., Beveridge, M., & Glover, V. (2002). Maternal antenatal anxiety and children's behavioural/emotional problems at 4 years. British Journal of Psychiatry, 180, 502–508.Google Scholar
O'Donnell, K. J., Glover, V., Holbrook, J. D., & O'Connor, T. G. (2014). Maternal prenatal anxiety and child brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) genotype: Effects on internalizing symptoms from 4 to 15 years of age. Development and Psychopathology, 26(4, pt. 2), 1255–1266.Google Scholar
Pardon, M. C. (2010). Role of neurotrophic factors in behavioral processes: Implications for the treatment of psychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders. Vitamins & Hormones, 82, 185–200.Google Scholar
Park, H., & Poo, M. M. (2013). Neurotrophin regulation of neural circuit development and function. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 14, 7.Google Scholar
Parra-Frutos, I. (2014). Controlling the Type I error rate by using the nonparametric bootstrap when comparing means. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, 67, 117–132.Google Scholar
Pluess, M., & Belsky, J. (2011). Prenatal programming of postnatal plasticity? Development and Psychopathology, 23, 29–38.Google Scholar
Posner, M. I., & Rothbart, M. K. (1998). Attention, self-regulation and consciousness. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 353, 1915–1927.Google Scholar
Putnam, S. P., Helbig, A. L., Gartstein, M. A., Rothbart, M. K., & Leerkes, E. (2014). Development and assessment of short and very short forms of the Infant Behavior Questionnaire—Revised. Journal of Personality Assessment, 96, 445–458.Google Scholar
Quinlivan, J. A., & Evans, S. F. (2005). Impact of domestic violence and drug abuse in pregnancy on maternal attachment and infant temperament in teenage mothers in the setting of best clinical practice. Archives of Women's Mental Health, 8, 191–199.Google Scholar
Richter-Schmidinger, T., Alexopoulos, P., Horn, M., Maus, S., Reichel, M., Rhein, C., … Doerfler, A. (2011). Influence of brain-derived neurotrophic-factor and apolipoprotein E genetic variants on hippocampal volume and memory performance in healthy young adults. Journal of Neural Transmission, 118, 249–257.Google Scholar
Saltzman, L. E., Johnson, C. H., Gilbert, B. C., & Goodwin, M. M. (2003). Physical abuse around the time of pregnancy: An examination of prevalence and risk factors in 16 states. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 7, 31–43.Google Scholar
Schuetze, P., Lopez, F. A., Granger, D. A., & Eiden, R. D. (2008). The association between prenatal exposure to cigarettes and cortisol reactivity and regulation in 7-month-old infants. Developmental Psychobiology, 50, 819–834.Google Scholar
Schüle, C., Zill, P., Baghai, T. C., Eser, D., Zwanzger, P., Wenig, N., … Bondy, B. (2006). Brain-derived neurotrophic factor Val66Met polymorphism and dexamethasone/CRH test results in depressed patients. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 31, 1019–1025.Google Scholar
Sen, S., Nesse, R. M., Stoltenberg, S. F., Li, S., Gleiberman, L., Chakravarti, A., … Burmeister, M. (2003). A BDNF coding variant is associated with the NEO personality inventory domain neuroticism, a risk factor for depression. Neuropsychopharmacology, 28, 397–401.Google Scholar
Sharps, P. W., Laughon, K., & Giangrande, S. K. (2007). Intimate partner violence and the childbearing year: Maternal and infant health consequences. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 8, 105–116.Google Scholar
Silverman, J. G., Decker, M. R., Reed, E., & Raj, A. (2006). Intimate partner violence victimization prior to and during pregnancy among women residing in 26 US states: Associations with maternal and neonatal health. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 195, 140–148.Google Scholar
Spangler, G., & Grossmann, K. E. (1993). Biobehavioral organization in securely and insecurely attached infants. Child Development, 64, 1439–1450.Google Scholar
Spangler, G., & Schieche, M. (1998). Emotional and adrenocortical responses of infants to the strange situation: The differential function of emotional expression. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 22, 681–706.Google Scholar
Stevenson, J., Thompson, M. J. J., & Sonuga-Burke, E. (1996). Mental health of preschool children and their mothers in a mixed urban/rural population. British Journal of Psychiatry, 168, 26–32.Google Scholar
Straus, M. A., Hamby, S. L., Boney-McCoy, S., & Sugarman, D. B. (1996). The revised Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS2) development and preliminary psychometric data. Journal of Family Issues, 17, 283–316.Google Scholar
Straus, M. A., Hamby, S. L., & Warren, W. L. (2003). Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS). Torrance, CA: Western Psychological Services.Google Scholar
Tackett, J. L., Martel, M. M., & Kushner, S. C. (2012). Temperament, externalizing disorders, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. In Zentner, M. & Shiner, R. L. (Eds.), Handbook of temperament, (pp. 562–580). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Talge, N. M., Neal, C., & Glover, V. (2007). Antenatal maternal stress and long-term effects on child neurodevelopment: How and why? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48, 245–261.Google Scholar
Thompson, J., Sonuga-Barke, E. J., Morgan, A. R., Cornforth, C. M., Turic, D., Ferguson, L. R., … Waldie, K. E. (2012). The catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) Val158Met polymorphism moderates the effect of antenatal stress on childhood behavioural problems: Longitudinal evidence across multiple ages. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 54, 148–154.Google Scholar
Tjaden, P., & Thoennes, N. (2000). Full report of the prevalence, incidence, and consequences of intimate partner violence against women: Findings from the National Violence Against Women Survey. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice.Google Scholar
Tocchetto, A., Salum, G. A., Blaya, C., Teche, S., Isolan, L., Bortoluzzi, A., … Leistner-Segal, S. (2011). Evidence of association between Val66Met polymorphism at BDNF gene and anxiety disorders in a community sample of children and adolescents. Neuroscience Letters, 502, 197–200.Google Scholar
Tollenaar, M. S., Beijers, R., Jansen, J., Riksen-Walraven, J. M. A., & de Weerth, C. (2011). Maternal prenatal stress and cortisol reactivity to stressors in human infants. Stress, 14, 53–65.Google Scholar
Van Bakel, H. J., & Riksen-Walraven, J. M. (2004). Stress reactivity in 15-month-old infants: Links with infant temperament, cognitive competence, and attachment security. Developmental Psychobiology, 44, 157–167.Google Scholar
Van den Bergh, B. R., Mulder, E. J., Mennes, M., & Glover, V. (2005). Antenatal maternal anxiety and stress and the neurobehavioural development of the fetus and child: Links and possible mechanisms. A review. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 29, 237–258.Google Scholar
Watamura, S. E., Kryzer, E. M., & Robertson, S. S. (2009). Cortisol patterns at home and child care: Afternoon differences and evening recovery in children attending very high quality full-day center-based child care. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 30, 475–485.Google Scholar
Walters, G. D. (2014). Pathways to early delinquency: Exploring the individual and collective contributions of difficult temperament, low maternal involvement, and externalizing behavior. Journal of Criminal Justice, 42, 321–326.Google Scholar
Wolfe, J., & Kimerling, R. (1997). Gender issues in the assessment of posttraumatic stress disorder.Google Scholar
Yeom, C. W., Park, Y. J., Choi, S. W., & Bhang, S. Y. (2016). Association of peripheral BDNF level with cognition, attention and behavior in preschool children. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 10, 10.Google Scholar
Zohsel, K., Buchmann, A. F., Blomeyer, D., Hohm, E., Schmidt, M. H., Esser, G., … Laucht, M. (2014). Mothers' prenatal stress and their children's antisocial outcomes—A moderating role for the dopamine D4 receptor (DRD4) gene. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 55, 69–76.Google Scholar