Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gxg78 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-27T13:54:51.233Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

THOSE LEFT BEHIND

Socioeconomic Predictors and Social Mediators of Psychological Distress among Working-age African Americans in a Post-industrial City

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 February 2021

Alexis C. Dennis
Alexis C. Dennis*
Affiliation:
Department of Sociology and Carolina Population Center, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
*
Corresponding author: Alexis C. Dennis, Department of Sociology and Carolina Population Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 155 Pauli Murray Hall, CB 3210, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599-3201. E-mail: acdennis@live.unc.edu.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

While the socioeconomic status (SES)–psychological distress gradient is well-documented in the social science literature, less attention has been devoted to how this relationship varies within sociodemographic subgroups. I contribute to this small but growing literature by first examining the relationship between multiple dimensions of SES and two measures of psychological distress (depression and anxiety) among working-age African Americans. I then test whether three social mediators explain the SES–psychological distress relationship, and whether gender modifies these associations and/or the social mediators that shape them. To address these aims, I analyze two waves of population-representative data from the Detroit Neighborhood Health Study (N=685). Data were collected between 2008 and 2010 in the wake of the Great Recession. I utilize structural equation modeling with latent variables to assess these relationships, and test indirect and conditional effects to detect the presence of mediation and/or moderation, respectively. Findings revealed associations between higher total household income and lower levels of depression/anxiety, as well as unemployment and increased depression/anxiety among working-age African Americans. Furthermore, higher educational attainment was associated with reduced anxiety, but not depression, in this population. Gender moderated these findings such that unemployment was associated with higher levels of depression/anxiety among women but not men. I also found that trauma mediated the relationship between unemployment and depression/anxiety as well as educational attainment and anxiety. Gender, however, moderated the association between unemployment and depression/anxiety via traumatic events such that the relationship was stronger among women than men. Collectively, these findings contribute to our limited understanding of African Americans’ mental health and underscore the importance of how both socioeconomic forces and life course experiences with traumatic events contribute to poor mental health among this population.

Keywords

African AmericansRaceSocioeconomic StatusDepressionAnxietySocial and Economic Inequality
Type
State of the Art
Information
Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race , Volume 18 , Issue 1 , Spring 2021 , pp. 119 - 151
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Hutchins Center for African and African American Research

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Adler, Nancy E., and Rehkopf, David H. (2008). U.S. Disparities in Health: Descriptions, Causes, and Mechanisms. Annual Review of Public Health, 29(1): 235–252. <https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.publhealth.29.020907.090852>.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ajrouch, Kristine J., Reisine, Susan, Lim, Sungwoo, Sohn, Woosung, and Ismail, Amid (2010). Perceived Everyday Discrimination and Psychological Distress: Does Social Support Matter? Ethnicity & Health, 15(4): 417–434. <https://doi.org/10.1080/13557858.2010.484050>.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alim, Tanya N., Graves, Elaine, Mellman, Thomas A., Aigbogun, Notalelomwan, Gray, Ekwenzi, Lawson, William, and Charney, Dennis S. (2006). Trauma Exposure, Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Depression in an African-American Primary Care Population. Journal of the National Medical Association, 98(10): 1630–1636.Google Scholar
Allison, Paul D. (2003). Missing Data Techniques for Structural Equation Modeling. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 112(4): 545–557. <https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.112.4.545>.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anderson, James C., and Gerbing, David W. (1988). Structural Equation Modeling in Practice: A Review and Recommended Two-Step Approach. Psychological Bulletin, 103(3): 411–423. <https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.103.3.411>.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Assari, Shervin (2017). Combined Racial and Gender Differences in the Long-Term Predictive Role of Education on Depressive Symptoms and Chronic Medical Conditions. Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities, 4(3): 385–396. <https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-016-0239-7>.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Assari, Shervin (2018). Educational Attainment Better Protects African American Women than African American Men Against Depressive Symptoms and Psychological Distress. Brain Sciences, 8(10). <https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci8100182>.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Assari, Shervin, and Caldwell, Cleopatra H. (2017). High Risk of Depression in High-Income African American Boys. Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities, August, 1–12. <https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-017-0426-1>.CrossRef.>Google Scholar
Barnes, David M., and Bates, Lisa M. (2017). Do Racial Patterns in Psychological Distress Shed Light on the Black-White Depression Paradox?: A Systematic Review. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, May. <https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-017-1394-9>.CrossRef.>Google Scholar
Bollen, Kenneth A. (1989). Structural Equations with Latent Variables. Wiley Series in Probability and Mathematical Statistics. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Bollen, Kenneth A., and Stine, Robert (1990). Direct and Indirect Effects: Classical and Bootstrap Estimates of Variability. Sociological Methodology, 20: 115–140. <https://doi.org/10.2307/271084>.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Braveman, Paula A., Cubbin, Catherine, Egerter, Susan, Chideya, Sekai, Marchi, Kristen S., Metzler, Marilyn, and Posner, Samuel (2005). Socioeconomic Status in Health Research: One Size Does Not Fit All. JAMA, 294(22): 2879–2888. <https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.294.22.2879>.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Breslau, Naomi, Davis, Glenn C., and Andreski, Patricia (1995). Risk Factors for PTSD-Related Traumatic Events: A Prospective Analysis. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 152(4): 529.Google ScholarPubMed
Brown, David W., Balluz, Lina S., Ford, Earl S., Giles, Wayne H., Strine, Tara W., Moriarty, David G., Croft, Janet B., and Mokdad, Ali H. (2003). Associations Between Short- and Long-Term Unemployment and Frequent Mental Distress Among a National Sample of Men and Women. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 45(11): 1159. <https://doi.org/10.1097/01.jom.0000094994.09655.0f>.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, Tamara L., Phillips, Clarenda M., Abdullah, Tahirah, Vinson, Ebony, and Robertson, Jermaine (2011). Dispositional Versus Situational Coping: Are the Coping Strategies African Americans Use Different for General Versus Racism-Related Stressors? Journal of Black Psychology, 37(3): 311–335. <https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798410390688>.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, Tony N., Donato, Katherine M., Laske, Mary Therese, and Duncan, Ebony M. (2013). Race, Nativity, Ethnicity, and Cultural Influences in the Sociology of Mental Health. In Aneshensel, Carol S., Phelan, Jo C., and Alex, Bierman (Eds.) Handbook of the Sociology of Mental Health, Second Edition, pp. 255–276. Handbooks of Sociology and Social Research. New York; London: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buffie, Nick (2015). The Problem of Black Unemployment: Racial Inequalities Persist Even Amongst the Unemployed. Center for Economic and Policy Research. <https://medium.com/@ceprdc/the-problem-of-black-unemployment-racial-inequalities-persist-even-amongst-the-unemployed-b39f86ec94be> (accessed January 15, 2021).+(accessed+January+15,+2021).>Google Scholar
Burgard, Sarah A., Ailshire, Jennifer A., and Kalousova, Lucie (2013). The Great Recession and Health: People, Populations, and Disparities. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 650(1): 194–213. <https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716213500212>.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burgard, Sarah A., and Kalousova, Lucie (2015). Effects of the Great Recession: Health and Well-Being. Annual Review of Sociology, 41(1): 181–201. <https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-073014-112204>.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burgard, Sarah A., Seefeldt, Kristin S., and Zelner, Sarah (2012). Housing Instability and Health: Findings from the Michigan Recession and Recovery Study. Social Science & Medicine , 75(12): 2215–2224. <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2012.08.020>.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burgard, Sarah A., and Seelye, Sarah (2017). Histories of Perceived Job Insecurity and Psychological Distress Among Older U.S. Adults. Society and Mental Health, 7(1): 21–35. <https://doi.org/10.1177/2156869316679466>.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burton, L. M., and Whitfield, K. E. (2003). ‘Weathering’ Towards Poorer Health in Later Life: Co-Morbidity in Urban Low-Income Families. Public Policy & Aging Report, 13(3): 13–18. <https://doi.org/10.1093/ppar/13.3.13>.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cagney, Kathleen A., Browning, Christopher R., Iveniuk, James, and English, Ned (2014). The Onset of Depression During the Great Recession: Foreclosure and Older Adult Mental Health. American Journal of Public Health, 104(3): 498–505. <https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2013.301566>.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Danziger, Sheldon, and Lin, Ann Chih (2000). Coping with Poverty: The Social Contexts of Neighborhood, Work, and Family in the African-American Community. Ann Arbor, MI: The University of Michigan Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dooley, David (2003). Unemployment, Underemployment, and Mental Health: Conceptualizing Employment Status as a Continuum. American Journal of Community Psychology, 32(1–2): 9–20. <https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1025634504740>.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Duxbury, Linda, Stevenson, Maggie, and Higgins, Christopher (2017). Too Much to Do, Too Little Time: Role Overload and Stress in a Multi-Role Environment. International Journal of Stress Management, (25)3: 250–266. <https://doi.org/10.1037/str0000062>.Google Scholar
Eaton, William W., and Muntaner, Charles (2017). Socioeconomic Stratification and Mental Disorder. In Scheid, Theresa L. and Wright, Eric R. (Eds.) A Handbook for the Study of Mental Health: Social Contexts, Theories, and Systems, Third Edition, pp. 239–265. Cambridage, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellis, Katrina R., Griffith, Derek M., Allen, Julie Ober, Thorpe, Roland J. Jr., and Bruce, Marino A. (2015). ‘If You Do Nothing about Stress, the next Thing You Know, You’re Shattered’: Perspectives on African American Men’s Stress, Coping, and Health from African American Men and Key Women in Their Lives. Social Science & Medicine, 139 (August): 107–114. <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.06.036>.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Farley, Reynolds, Danziger, Sheldon, and Holzer, Harry J. (2000). Detroit Divided: A Volume in The Multi-City Study of Urban Inequality. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
Fone, David, Dunstan, Frank, Lloyd, Keith, Williams, Gareth, Watkins, John, and Palmer, Stephen (2007). Does Social Cohesion Modify the Association between Area Income Deprivation and Mental Health?: A Multilevel Analysis. International Journal of Epidemiology, 36(2): 338–345. <https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dym004>.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Galobardes, Bruna, Shaw, Mary, Lawlor, Debbie A., and Lynch, John W. (2006). Indicators of Socioeconomic Position (Part 1). Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 60(1): 7–12. <https://doi.org/10.1136/jech.2004.023531>.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gavin, Amelia R., Walton, Emily, Chae, David H., Alegria, Margarita, Jackson, James S., and Takeuchi, David (2010). The Associations between Socioeconomic Status and Major Depressive Disorder Among Blacks, Latinos, Asians, and Non-Hispanic Whites: Findings from The Collaborative Psychiatric Epidemiology Studies. Psychological Medicine, 40(1): 51–61. <https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291709006023>.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Geronimus, Arline T., Pearson, Jay A., Linnenbringer, Erin, Schulz, Amy J., Reyes, Angela G., Epel, Elissa S., Lin, Jue, and Blackburn, Elizabeth H. (2015). Race-Ethnicity, Poverty, Urban Stressors, and Telomere Length in a Detroit Community-Based Sample. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 56(2): 199–224. <https://doi.org/10.1177/0022146515582100>.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greer, Tawanda M., Laseter, Adrian, and Asiamah, David (2009). Gender as a Moderator of the Relation between Race-Related Stress and Mental Health Symptoms for African Americans. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 33(3): 295–307. <https://doi.org/10.1177/036168430903300305>.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Griffith, Derek M., Cornish, Emily K., McKissic, Sydika A., and Dean, Donnatesa A. L. (2016). John Henry and the Paradox of Manhood, Fatherhood and Health for African American Fathers. In Burton, Linda M., Burton, Dorian, McHale, Susan M., King, Valarie, and Van Hook, Jennifer (Eds.) Boys and Men in African American Families, pp. 215–226. National Symposium on Family Issues. <https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-43847-4_13>.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Griffith, Derek M., Ellis, Katrina R., and Allen, Julie Ober (2013). An Intersectional Approach to Social Determinants of Stress for African American Men: Men’s and Women’s Perspectives. American Journal of Men’s Health, 7(4_suppl): 19S–30S. <https://doi.org/10.1177/1557988313480227>.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hamilton-Mason, Johnnie, Hall, J. Camille, and Everett, Joyce E. (2009). And Some of Us Are Braver: Stress and Coping Among African American Women. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 19(5): 463–482.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hegewisch, Ariane, and Hartmann, Heidi (2019). The Gender Wage Gap: 2018 Earnings Differences by Race and Ethnicity. Fact Sheet IWPR #C478. Washington, DC: Institute for Women’s Policy Research.Google Scholar
Henderson, Heather, Child, Stephanie, Moore, Spencer, Moore, Justin B., and Kaczynski, Andrew T. (2016). The Influence of Neighborhood Aesthetics, Safety, and Social Cohesion on Perceived Stress in Disadvantaged Communities. American Journal of Community Psychology, 58(1–2): 80–88. <https://doi.org/10.1002/ajcp.12081>.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hill, Terrence D., Ross, Catherine E., and Angel, Ronald J. (2005). Neighborhood Disorder, Psychophysiological Distress, and Health. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 46(2): 170–186.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hu, Li-tze, and Bentler, Peter M. (1999). Cutoff Criteria for Fit Indexes in Covariance Structure Analysis: Conventional Criteria versus New Alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1): 1–55. <https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118>.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hudson, Darrell L., Neighbors, H. W., Geronimus, A. T., and Jackson, J. S. (2012). The Relationship between Socioeconomic Position and Depression among a U.S. Nationally Representative Sample of African Americans. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 47(3): 373–381. <https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-011-0348-x>.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jackson, James S., Hudson, Darrell, Kershaw, Kiarri, Mezuk, Briana, Rafferty, Jane, and Tuttle, Katherine Knight (2011). Discrimination, Chronic Stress, and Mortality Among Black Americans: A Life Course Framework. In Rogers, Richard G. and Crimmins, Eileen M. (Eds.) International Handbook of Adult Mortality, pp. 311–328. International Handbooks of Population 2. Springer Netherlands. <https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-9996-9_15>.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kochhar, Rakesh, and Fry, Richard (2014). Wealth Inequality Has Widened Along Racial, Ethnic Lines since End of Great Recession. FactTank: News in the Numbers. Washington, DC: Pew Research Center. <https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2014/12/12/racial-wealth-gaps-great-recession/> (accessed January 13, 2021).Google Scholar
Kroenke, Kurt, Spitzer, Robert L., and Williams, Janet B. W. (2001). The PHQ-9. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 16(9): 606–613. <https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1525-1497.2001.016009606.x>.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lee, Hedwig, and Hicken, Margaret Takako (2016). Death by a Thousand Cuts: The Health Implications of Black Respectability Politics. Souls, 18(2–4): 421–445. <https://doi.org/10.1080/10999949.2016.1230828>.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Louie, Patricia, and Wheaton, Blair (2019). The Black-White Paradox Revisited: Understanding the Role of Counterbalancing Mechanisms during Adolescence. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 60(2): 169–187. <https://doi.org/10.1177/0022146519845069>.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marshall, Gillian L., Hooyman, Nancy R., Hill, Karl G., and Rue, Tessa C. (2013). Association of Socio-Demographic Factors and Parental Education with Depressive Symptoms among Older African Americans and Caribbean Blacks. Aging & Mental Health, 17(6): 732–737. <https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2013.777394>.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McGuire, T. G., and Miranda, J. (2008). New Evidence Regarding Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Mental Health: Policy Implications. Health Affairs, 27(2): 393–403. <https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.27.2.393>.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McLaughlin, K. A., Nandi, A., Keyes, K. M., Uddin, M., Aiello, A. E., Galea, S., and Koenen, K. C. (2012). Home Foreclosure and Risk of Psychiatric Morbidity during the Recent Financial Crisis. Psychological Medicine, 42(7): 1441–1448. <https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291711002613>.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mîndrilă, Diana (2010). Maximum Likelihood (ML) and Diagonally Weighted Least Squares (DWLS) Estimation Procedures: A Comparison of Estimation Bias with Ordinal and Multivariate Non-Normal Data. International Journal for Digital Society, 1(1): 60–66. <https://doi.org/10.20533/ijds.2040.2570.2010.0010>.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mirowsky, John, and Ross, Catherine E. (2003). Social Causes of Psychological Distress. 2nd ed. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.Google Scholar
Mishel, Lawrence R., Bivens, Josh, Gould, Elise, and Shierholz, Heidi (2012). The State of Working America. Ithaca, NY: ILR Press.Google Scholar
Mouzon, Dawne M., Taylor, Robert Joseph, Nguyen, Ann W., and Chatters, Linda M. (2016). Serious Psychological Distress Among African Americans: Findings from the National Survey of American Life. Journal of Community Psychology, 44(6): 765–780. <https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.21800>.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Muntaner, Charles, Ng, Edwin, Vanroelen, Christophe, and Eaton, William W. (2013). Social Stratification, Social Closure, and Social Class as Determinants of Mental Health Disparities. In Aneshensel, Carol S., Phelan, Jo C., and Bierman, Alex (Eds.) Handbook of the Sociology of Mental Health, Second Edition, pp. 205–228. Handbooks of Sociology and Social Research. New York, London: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
National Center for Education Statistics (2018). Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 2018. National Center for Education Statistics. <https://nces.ed.gov/programs/raceindicators/index.asp> (accessed January 13, 2021).+(accessed+January+13,+2021).>Google Scholar
Paul, Karsten I., and Moser, Klaus (2009). Unemployment Impairs Mental Health: Meta-Analyses. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 7 (3): 264–282. <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2009.01.001>.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Paul, Mark, Zaw, Khaing, Hamilton, Darrick, and Darity, William Jr. (2018). Returns in the Labor Market: A Nuanced View of Penalties at the Intersection of Race and Gender. Working Paper Series. Washington, DC: Washington Center for Equitable Growth. <https://equitablegrowth.org/working-papers/intersectionality-labor-market/> (accessed January 13, 2021).Google Scholar
Pearlin, Leonard I. (1989). The Sociological Study of Stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 30(3): 241–256.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pearson, Jay A. (2008). Can’t Buy Me Whiteness: New Lessons from the Titanic on Race, Ethnicity, and Health. Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race, 5(1): 27–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Phelan, Jo C., and Link, Bruce G. (2015). Is Racism a Fundamental Cause of Inequalities in Health? Annual Review of Sociology, 41(1): 311–330. <https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-073014-112305>.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Preacher, Kristopher J., and Hayes, Andrew F. (2008). Asymptotic and Resampling Strategies for Assessing and Comparing Indirect Effects in Multiple Mediator Models. Behavior Research Methods, 40(3): 879–991. <https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.40.3.879>.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Preacher, Kristopher J., Rucker, Derek D., and Hayes, Andrew F. (2007). Addressing Moderated Mediation Hypotheses: Theory, Methods, and Prescriptions. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 42(1): 185–227. <https://doi.org/10.1080/00273170701341316>.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Raftery, Adrian E. (1995). Bayesian Model Selection in Social Research. Sociological Methodology, 25: 111–163. <https://doi.org/10.2307/271063>.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Riumallo-Herl, Carlos, Basu, Sanjay, Stuckler, David, Courtin, Emilie, and Avendano, Mauricio (2014). Job Loss, Wealth and Depression during the Great Recession in the USA and Europe. International Journal of Epidemiology, 43(5): 1508–1517. <https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyu048>.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosenfield, Sarah, and Mouzon, Dawne M. (2013). Gender and Mental Health. In Aneshensel, Carol S., Phelan, Jo C., and Bierman, Alex (Eds.) Handbook of the Sociology of Mental Health, pp. 277–296. Handbooks of Sociology and Social Research. New York, London: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rubin, Donald B. (1987). Multiple Imputation for Nonresponse in Surveys. New York: Wiley.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sampson, R. J., Raudenbush, S. W., and Earls, F. (1997). Neighborhoods and Violent Crime: A Multilevel Study of Collective Efficacy. Science (New York, NY), 277(5328): 918–924.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sareen, Jitender, Afifi, Tracie O., McMillan, Katherine A., and Asmundson, Gordon J. G. (2011). Relationship Between Household Income and Mental Disorders: Findings from a Population-Based Longitudinal Study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 68(4): 419–427. <https://doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.15>.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schnittker, Jason, and McLeod, Jane D. (2005). The Social Psychology of Health Disparities. Annual Review of Sociology, 31(1): 75–103. <https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.30.012703.110622>.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Seelye, Katharine Q. (2011). Detroit Census Confirms a Desertion Like No Other. The New York Times, March 22, sec. U.S. <https://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/23/us/23detroit.html> (accessed January 13, 2021).+(accessed+January+13,+2021).>Google Scholar
Settels, Jason (2020). Changes in City-Level Foreclosure Rates and Home Prices through the Great Recession and Depressive Symptoms among Older Americans. Society and Mental Health, January. <https://doi.org/10.1177/2156869319895568>.CrossRef.>Google Scholar
Shapiro, Thomas M. (2017). Toxic Inequality: How America’s Wealth Gap Destroys Mobility, Deepens the Racial Divide, and Threatens Our Future. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Spitzer, Robert L., Kroenke, Kurt, Janet, B. W. Williams, and Löwe, Bernd (2006). A Brief Measure for Assessing Generalized Anxiety Disorder: The GAD-7. Archives of Internal Medicine, 166(10): 1092–1097. <https://doi.org/10.1001/archinte.166.10.1092>.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stack, Carol B. (1974). All Our Kin: Strategies for Survival in a Black Community. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Stafford, Mai, Mcmunn, Anne, and Vogli, Roberto De (2011). Neighbourhood Social Environment and Depressive Symptoms in Mid-Life and Beyond. Ageing & Society, 31(6): 893–910. <https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X10001236>.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Taylor, Robert Joseph, Leashore, Bogart R., and Toliver, Susan (1988). An Assessment of the Provider Role as Perceived by Black Males. Family Relations, 37(4): 426–431. <https://doi.org/10.2307/584115>.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thoits, Peggy A. (1995). Stress, Coping, and Social Support Processes: Where Are We? What Next? Journal of Health and Social Behavior, (Extra Issue): 53–79. <https://doi.org/10.2307/2626957>.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thoits, Peggy A. (2011). Mechanisms Linking Social Ties and Support to Physical and Mental Health. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 52(2): 145–161. <https://doi.org/10.1177/0022146510395592>.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Turner, R. Jay, Brown, Tony N., and Hale, William Beardall (2017). Race, Socioeconomic Position, and Physical Health: A Descriptive Analysis. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 58(1): 23–36. <https://doi.org/10.1177/0022146516687008>.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Turner, R. Jay, and Lloyd, Donald A. (1995). Lifetime Traumas and Mental Health: The Significance of Cumulative Adversity. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 36(4): 360–376. <https://doi.org/10.2307/2137325>.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Turner, R. Jay, Wheaton, Blair, and Lloyd, Donald A. (1995). The Epidemiology of Social Stress. American Sociological Review, 60(1): 104–125. <https://doi.org/10.2307/2096348>.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Umberson, Debra (2017). Black Deaths Matter: Race, Relationship Loss, and Effects on Survivors. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 58(4): 405–420.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williams, David R. (2018). Stress and the Mental Health of Populations of Color: Advancing Our Understanding of Race-Related Stressors. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 59(4): 466–485. <https://doi.org/10.1177/0022146518814251>.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williams, David R., and Collins, Chiquita (1995). U.S. Socioeconomic and Racial Differences in Health: Patterns and Explanations. Annual Review of Sociology, 21: 349–386.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, David R., González, Hector M., Neighbors, Harold, Nesse, Randolph, Abelson, Jamie M., Sweetman, Julie, and Jackson, James S. (2007). Prevalence and Distribution of Major Depressive Disorder in African Americans, Caribbean Blacks, and Non-Hispanic Whites: Results from the National Survey of American Life. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64(3): 305. <https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.64.3.305>.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williams, David R., Priest, Naomi, and Anderson, Norman (2016). Understanding Associations between Race, Socioeconomic Status and Health: Patterns and Prospects. Health Psychology: Official Journal of the Division of Health Psychology, American Psychological Association 35(4): 407–411. <https://doi.org/10.1037/hea0000242>.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williams, David R., Takeuchi, David T., and Adair, Russell K. (1992). Socioeconomic Status and Psychiatric Disorder among Blacks and Whites. Social Forces, 71(1): 179–194. <https://doi.org/10.2307/2579972>.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilson, William Julius (1997). When Work Disappears: The World of the New Urban Poor. New York: Vintage Books.Google Scholar
Winship, Christopher, and Radbill, Larry (1994). Sampling Weights and Regression Analysis. Sociological Methods & Research, 23(2): 230–257.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhao, Xinshu, Lynch, John G., Chen, Qimei (2010). Reconsidering Baron and Kenny: Myths and Truths about Mediation Analysis. Journal of Consumer Research, 37(2): 197–206. <https://doi.org/10.1086/651257>.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zimmerman, Frederick J., and Katon, Wayne (2005). Socioeconomic Status, Depression Disparities, and Financial Strain: What Lies behind the Income-Depression Relationship? Health Economics, 14(12): 1197–1215. <https://doi.org/10.1002/hec.1011>.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed