Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-v9fdk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-13T07:00:10.429Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

RESPONSES TO STIGMATIZATION

The Moderating Roles of Primary and Secondary Appraisals1

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 June 2012

Leanne S. Son Hing
Leanne S. Son Hing*
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of Guelph
*
Professor Leanne S. Son Hing, Department of Psychology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada, N1G 2W1. E-mail: sonhing@uoguelph.ca
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The more that devalued group members experience stigmatization, the worse their physical and mental health, well-being, and performance will be. However, the effects of stigmatization are often mixed, weak, and conditional. We should expect such variability in how devalued group members respond to stigmatization because resilience in the face of challenges is possible, depending on how stressful stigmatization is for people. Using the transactional model of stress (Lazarus and Folkman, 1984) as an organizing framework, I provide evidence that people will have different reactions to stigmatization depending on primary appraisals—that is, how harmful and self-relevant they appraise it to be—and on secondary appraisals—that is, whether or not they believe that they have the resources to cope with it. My review of the literature suggests that a stronger ingroup identification, stronger identification with a negatively stereotyped domain, chronic beliefs about stigmatization, and beliefs about meritocracy create vulnerabilities to stigmatization because they lead people to appraise stigmatization as more harmful and self-relevant. Furthermore, psychological optimism, a sense of control, self-esteem, as well as high socioeconomic status, a stronger identification with one's ingroup, and positive evaluations of the ingroup create resilience to discrimination because they allow people to perceive themselves as having the resources needed to cope with stigmatization. In conclusion, people will respond to the same potential stressor in different ways, depending on how self-relevant and harmful they perceive it to be and whether or not they perceive themselves as having the resources to cope. Thus, attention should be directed to developing families, communities, institutions, and societies that can provide people with the resources that they need to be resilient.

Keywords

StigmaStressPrimary AppraisalsSecondary AppraisalsResponses to Discrimination
Type
Special Feature
Information
Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race , Volume 9 , Issue 1 , Spring 2012 , pp. 149 - 168
Copyright
Copyright © W.E.B. Du Bois Institute for African and African American Research 2012

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

1

Thank you to Vishi Gnanakumaran, Rob Iacocca, Donna Garcia, Michele Lamont, and Jessica Welburn for their feedback and assistance with manuscript preparation. Thank you to my funding agency, the Canadian Institute for Advanced Research (CIFAR). Thank you also to my CIFAR colleagues for encouraging my interest in and shaping my thinking about resilience and stigmatization.

References

REFERENCES

Armstrong, Mary I., Birnie-Lefcovitch, Shelly, and Ungar, Michael T. (2005). Pathways Between Social Support, Family Well-Being, Quality of Parenting, and Child Resilience: What We Know. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 14(2): 269–281.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bair, Allison N. and Steele, Jennifer R. (2010). Examining the Consequences of Exposure to Racism for the Executive Functioning of Black Students. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46(1): 127–132.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baumeister, Roy F. and Leary, Mark R. (1995). The Need to Belong: Desire for Interpersonal Attachments as a Fundamental Human Motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117(3): 497–529.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blascovich, Jim J., Spencer, Steven J., Quinn, Diane, and Steele, Claude (2001). African Americans and High Blood Pressure: The Role of Stereotype Threat. Psychological Science, 12(3): 225–229.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bosson, Jennifer K., Haymovitz, Ethan L., and Pinel, Elizabeth C. (2004). When Saying and Doing Diverge: The Effects of Stereotype Threat on Self-Reported Versus Non-Verbal Anxiety. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40(2): 247–255.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Branscombe, Nyla R., Schmitt, Michael T., and Harvey, Richard D. (1999). Perceiving Pervasive Discrimination Among African Americans: Implications for Group Identification and Well-Being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(1): 135–149.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brondolo, Elizabeth E., Halen, Nisha N. Brady ver, Pencille, Melissa M., Beatty, Danielle D., and Contrada, Richard J. (2009). Coping with Racism: A Selective Review of the Literature and a Theoretical and Methodological Critique. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 32(1): 64–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, Ryan P. and Lee, Monica N. (2005). Stigma Consciousness and the Race Gap in College Academic Achievement. Self and Identity, 4(2): 149–157.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carter, Robert T. (2007). Racism and Psychological and Emotional Injury: Recognizing and Assessing Race-Based Traumatic Stress. The Counseling Psychologist, 35(1): 13–105.Google Scholar
Cassidy, Claire, O'Connor, Rory C., Howe, Christine, and Warden, David (2004). Perceived Discrimination and Psychological Distress: The Role of Personal and Ethnic Self-Esteem. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 51(3): 329–339.Google Scholar
Cohen, Geoffrey L., Garcia, Julio, Purdie-Vaughns, Valerie, Apfel, Nancy, and Bruzustoski, Patricia (2009). Recursive Processes in Self-Affirmation: Intervening to Close the Minority Achievement Gap. Science, 324(5925): 400–403.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cohen, Sheldon, Janicki-Deverts, Denise, and Miller, Gregory E. (2007). Psychological Stress and Disease. Journal of the American Medical Association, 298(14): 1685–1687.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Correl, J. and Park, Bernadette (2005). A Model of the Ingroup as a Social Resource. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 9(4): 341–359.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crocker, J., Cornwell, Beth, and Major, Brenda (1993). The Stigma of Overweight: Affective Consequences of Attributional Ambiguity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64(1): 60–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crocker, J., Major, Brenda, and Steele, Claude (1998). Social Stigma. In Gilbert, Daniel T., Fiske, Susan T., and Lindzey, Gardner (Eds.), Handbook of Social Psychology, pp. 503–553. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Crosby, F. (1984). The Denial of Personal Discrimination. American Behavioral Scientist, 27(3): 371–386.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davies, Paul G., Spencer, Steven J., Quinn, Diane M., and Gerhardstein, Rebecca (2002). Consuming Images: How Television Commercials that Elicit Stereotype Threat Can Restrain Women Academically and Professionally. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(12): 1615–1628.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Devine, Patricia G. (1989). Stereotypes and Prejudice: Their Automatic and Controlled Components. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56(1): 5–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dickerson, Sally S. and Kemeny, Margaret E. (2004). Acute Stressors and Cortisol Responses: A Theoretical Integration and Synthesis of Laboratory Research. Psychological Bulletin, 130(3): 355–391.Google Scholar
Dion, Kenneth. L., Dion, Karen K., and Pak, Anita W. (1992). Personality-Based Hardiness as a Buffer for Discrimination-Related Stress in Members of Toronto's Chinese Community. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 24(4): 517–536.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fleming, Cystal, Lamont, Michele, and Welburn, Jessica (Forthcoming). African Americans Respond to Stigmatization: the Meanings and Salience of Confronting, Deflecting Conflict, Educating the Ignorant and “Managing the Self.” Ethnic and Racial Studies.Google Scholar
Folkman, Susan and Lazarus, Richard S. (1980). An Analysis of Coping in a Middle-Aged Community Sample. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 21(3): 219–239.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Folkman, Susan and Moskowitz, Judith T. (2004). Coping: Pitfalls and Promises. Annual Review of Psychology, 55: 745–774.Google Scholar
Foster, Mindi D., Sloto, Lisa, and Ruby, Richard (2006). Responding to Discrimination as a Function of Meritocracy Beliefs and Personal Experiences: Testing the Model of Shattered Assumptions. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 9(3): 401–411.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Foster, Mindi D. and Tsarfati, Michael E. (2005). The Effects of Meritocracy Beliefs on Women's Well-Being After First-Time Gender Discrimination. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31(12): 1730–1738.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Glaser, Ronald (2005). Stress-Associated Immune Dysregulation and its Importance for Human Health: A Personal History of Psychoneuroimmunology. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 19: 3–11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greenwald, Anthony G. and Banaji, Mahzarin R. (1995). Implicit Social Cognition: Attitudes, Self-Esteem, and Stereotypes. Psychological Review, 102(1): 4–27.Google Scholar
Guyll, Max, Matthews, Karen A., and Bromberger, Joyce T (2001). Discrimination and Unfair Treatment: Relationship to Cardiovascular Reactivity Among African American and European American Women. Health Psychology, 20(5): 315–325.Google Scholar
Hall, Peter A. and Lamont, Michele (Forthcoming). Social Resilience in the Neoliberal Era.Google Scholar
Hall, Peter A. and Taylor, Rosemary C.R. (2009). Health, Social Relations and Public Policy. In Hall, Peter A. and Lamont, Michèle (Eds.), Successful Societies: How Institutions and Culture Affect Health, pp. 82–103. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Harper, Sam, Lynch, John, Burris, Scott, and Smith, George Davey (2007). Trends in the Black-White Life Expectancy Gap in the United States, 1983–2003. Journal of the American Medical Association, 297(11): 1224–1232.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harrell, Jules P., Hall, Sadiki, and Taliaferro, James (2003). Physiological Responses to Racism and Discrimination: An Assessment of the Evidence. American Journal of Public Health, 93(2): 243–248.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Haslam, S. Alexander, Jetten, Jolanda, Postmes, Tom, and Haslam, Catherine (2009). Social Identity, Health and Well-Being: An Emerging Agenda for Applied Psychology. Applied Psychology, 58(1): 1–23.Google Scholar
Hess, Thomas M., Auman, Corinne, Colcombe, Stanley J., and Rahhal, Tamara A. (2003). The Impact of Stereotype Threat on Age Differences in Memory Performance. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 58B(1): 3–11.Google Scholar
Holahan, Charles J., Moos, Rudolf H., and Schaefer, Jeanne A. (1996). Coping, Stress Resistance, and Growth: Conceptualizing Adaptive Functioning. In Zeidner, Moshe and Endler, Norman S. (Eds.), Handbook of Coping: Theory, Research, Applications, pp. 24–43. Oxford, UK: John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Inzlicht, Michael, McKay, Linda, and Aronson, Joshua (2006). Stigma as Ego Depletion: How Being the Target of Prejudice Affects Self-Control. Psychological Science, 17(3): 262–269.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jang, Yuri, Chiriboga, David A., and Small, Brent J. (2008). Perceived Discrimination and Psychological Well-Being: The Mediating and Moderating Role of Sense of Control. The International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 66(3): 213–227.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johns, Michael, Inzlicht, Michael, and Schmader, Toni (2008). Stereotype Threat and Executive Resource Depletion: Examining the Influence of Emotion Regulation. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 137(4): 691–705.Google Scholar
Kaiser, Cheryl R., Major, Brenda, and McCoy, Shannon K. (2004). Expectations About the Future and the Emotional Consequences of Perceiving Prejudice. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30(2): 173–184.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Keller, Johannes (2007). Stereotype Threat in Classroom Settings: The Interactive Effect of Domain Identification, Task Difficulty and Stereotype Threat on Female Students' Math Performance. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 77(2): 323–338.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kessler, Ronald C., Mickelson, Kristin D., Williams, David R. (1999). The Prevalence, Distribution, and Mental Health Correlates of Perceived Discrimination in the United States. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 40(3): 208–230.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
King, Kimberly R. (2005). Why is Discrimination Stressful? The Mediating Role of Cognitive Appraisal. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 11(3): 202–212.Google Scholar
Lamont, Michele, Fleming, Crystal, and Welburn, Jessica S. (Forthcoming). Responses to Discrimination and Social Resilience Under Neo-Liberalism: The Case of Brazil, Israel, and the United States. In Hall, P. A. and Lamont, Michele (Eds.), Social Resilience in the Neoliberal Era.Google Scholar
Lamont, Michele and Mizrachi, Nissim (Forthcoming). Ordinary People Doing Extraordinary Things: Responses to Stigmatization in Comparative Perspective. Ethnic and Racial Studies.Google Scholar
Lazarus, Richard S. and Folkman, Susan (1984). Stress, Appraisal and Coping. New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Lee, Richard M. (2005). Resilience against Discrimination: Ethnic Identity and Other-Group Orientation as Protective Factors for Korean Americans. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 52(1): 36–44.Google Scholar
Lewis, Robin J., Derlega, Valerian J., Griffin, Jessica L., and Krowinski, Alison C. (2003). Stressors for Gay Men and Lesbians: Life Stress, Gay-Related Stress, Stigma Consciousness, and Depressive Symptoms. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 22(6): 716–729.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Link, Bruce G., Lennon, Mary C., and Dohrenwend, Bruce P. (1993). Socioeconomic Status and Depression: The Role of Occupations Involving Direction, Control, and Planning. American Journal of Sociology, 98(6): 1351–1387.Google Scholar
Major, Brenda, Kaiser, Cheryl R., and McCoy, Shannon K. (2003a). It's Not My Fault: When and Why Attributions to Prejudice Protect Self-Esteem. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29(6): 772–781.Google Scholar
Major, Brenda, Kaiser, Cheryl R., O'Brien, Laurie T., and McCoy, Shannon K. (2007). Perceived Discrimination as Worldview Threat or Worldview Confirmation: Implications for Self-Esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(6): 1068–1086.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Major, Brenda, McCoy, Shannon K., Kaiser, Cheryl R., and Quinton, Wendy J. (2003b). Prejudice and Self-Esteem: A Transactional Model. In Stroebe, Wolfgang and Hewstone, Miles (Eds.), European Review of Social Psychology, vol. 14, pp. 77–104. Hove, UK: Taylor and Francis.Google Scholar
Major, Brenda and O'Brien, Laurie T. (2005). The Social Psychology of Stigma. Annual Review of Psychology, 56: 393–421.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Major, Brenda, Quinton, Wendy J., and Schmader, Toni (2003c). Attributions to Discrimination and Self-Esteem: Impact of Group Identification and Situational Ambiguity. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 39(3): 220–231.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mak, Winnie W. S., Poon, Cecilia Y. M., Pun, Loraine Y. K., and Cheung, Shu Fai (2007). Meta-Analysis of Stigma and Mental Health, Social Science & Medicine, 65(2): 245–261.Google Scholar
Martell, Richard F., Lane, David M., and Emrich, Cynthia (1996). Male-Female Differences: A Computer Simulation. American Psychologist, 51(2): 157–158.Google Scholar
Masten, Ann S. (2001). Ordinary Magic: Resilience Processes in Development. American Psychologist, 56(3): 227–238.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McCoy, Shannon K. and Major, Brenda (2003). Group Identification Moderates Emotional Responses to Perceived Prejudice. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29(8): 1005–1017.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McNeilly, Maya Dominguez, Robinson, Elwood L., Anderson, Norman B., Pieper, Carl F., Shah, A., Toth, Paul S., Martin, Pamela, Jackson, Dreama, Saulter, Terrence D., White, Cynthia, Kuchibatla, Magaratha, Collado, Shirley M., and Gerin, William (1995). Effect of Racist Provocation and Social Support on Cardiovascular Reactivity in African American Women. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 2(4): 321–338.Google Scholar
Mendoza-Denton, Rodolfo, Downey, Geraldine, Purdie, Valerie J., Davis, Angelina, and Pietrzak, Janina (2002). Sensitivity to Status-Based Rejection: Implications for African American Students' College Experience. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83(4): 896–918.Google Scholar
Miller, Carol T. (2006). Social Psychological Perspectives on Coping with Stressors Related to Stigma. In Levin, Shana and van Laar, Colette (Eds.), Stigma and Group Inequality: Social Psychological Perspectives, pp. 21–44. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Miller, Carol T. and Kaiser, Cheryl R. (2001). A Theoretical Perspective on Coping with Stigma. Journal of Social Issues, 57(1): 73–92.Google Scholar
Miller, Gregory E. and Blackwell, Ekin (2006). Turning up the Heat: Inflammation as a Mechanism Linking Chronic Sress, Depression, and Heart Disease. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15(6): 269–272.Google Scholar
Mossakowski, Krysia N. (2003). Coping with Perceived Discrimination: Does Ethnic Identity Protect Mental Health? Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 44(3): 318–331.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murphy, Mary C., Steele, Claude M., and Gross, James J. (2007). Signaling Threat: How Situational Cues Affect Women in Math, Science, and Engineering Settings. Psychological Science, 18(10): 879–885.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Neblett, Enrique W. Jr., White, Rhondal L., Ford, Kahlil R., Phillip, Cheri L., Nguyen, Hoa X., and Sellers, Robert M. (2008). Pattern of Racial Socialization and Psychological Adjustment: Can Parental Communications about Race Reduce the Impact of Racial Discrimination? Journal of Research Adolescence, 18(3): 477–515.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pascoe, Elizabeth A. and Smart Richman, Laura (2009). Perceived Discrimination and Health: A Meta-Analytic Review. Psychological Bulletin, 135(4): 531–554.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pavalko, Eliza K., Mossakowski, Krysia N., and Hamilton, Vanessa J. (2003). Does Perceived Discrimination Affect Health? Longitudinal Relationship Between Work Discrimination and Women's Physical and Emotional Health. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 44(1): 18–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pinel, Elizabeth C. (1999). Stigma Consciousness: The Psychological Legacy of Social Stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76(1): 114–128.Google Scholar
Ramirez-Valles, J., Fergus, S., Reisen, C. A., Poppen, J., and Zea, M. C. (2005). Confronting Stigma: Community Involvement and Psychological Well-Being Among HIV-Positive Latino Gay Men. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 27(1): 101–119.Google Scholar
Rivas-Drake, Deborah, Hughes, Diane, and Way, Niobe (2008). A Closer Look at Peer Discrimination, Ethnic Identity, and Psychological Well-Being Among Urban Chinese Sixth Graders. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 37(1): 12–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ruggiero, Karen M. and Taylor, Donald M. (1997). Why Minority Group Members Perceive or do not Perceive the Discrimination that Confronts Them: The Role of Self-Esteem and Perceived Control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72(2): 373–389.Google Scholar
Rusch, Nicolas, Corrigan, Patrick W., Wassel, Abigail, Michaels, Patrick, Olschewski, Manfred, Wilkniss, Sandra, and Batia, Karen (2009). Ingroup Perception and Responses to Stigma Among Persons with Mental Illness. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 120(4): 320–328.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sanchez, Juan I. and Brock, Petra (1996). Outcomes of Perceived Discrimination among Hispanic Employees: Is Diversity Management a Luxury or a Necessity? Academy of Management Journal, 39(3): 704–719.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmader, Toni, Johns, Michael, and Forbes, Chad (2008). An Integrated Process Model of Stereotype Threat Effects on Performance. Psychological Review, 115(2): 336–356.Google Scholar
Schmitt, Michael T. and Branscombe, Nyla R. (2002a). The Internal and External Causal Loci of Attributions to Prejudice. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(5): 620–628.Google Scholar
Schmitt, Michael T. and Branscombe, Nyla R. (2002b). The Meaning and Consequences of Perceived Discrimination in Disadvantaged and Privileged Social Groups. European Review of Social Psychology, 12: 167–199.Google Scholar
Schmitt, Michael T., Branscombe, Nyla R., Kobrynowicz, Diane, and Owen, Susan (2002). Perceiving Discrimination Against One's Gender Group has Different Implications for Well-Being in Women and Men. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(2): 197–210.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sellers, Robert M., Copeland-Linder, Nikeea, Martin, Pamela P., and Lewis, R. L'Hereux (2006). Racial Identity Matters: The Relationship Between Racial Discrimination and Psychological Functioning in African American Adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 16(2): 187–216.Google Scholar
Sidanius, James and Pratto, Felicia (2001). Social Dominance: An Intergroup Theory of Social Hierarchy and Oppression. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Son Hing, Leanne S., Chung-Yan, Greg A., Hamilton, Leah K., and Zanna, Mark P. (2008). A Two-Dimensional Model that Employs Explicit and Implicit Attitudes to Characterize Prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94(6): 971–987.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Son Hing, Leanne S. and Zanna, Mark P. (2010). Individual Differences in Prejudice. In Dovidio, John F., Esses, Victoria M., Glick, Peter, and Hewstone, Miles (Eds.), The Handbook of Prejudice, Stereotyping, and Discrimination, pp. 163–178. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spencer, Steven J., Steele, Claude M., and Quinn, Diane M. (1999). Stereotype Threat and Women's Math Performance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35(1): 4–28.Google Scholar
Steele, Claude M. (1988). The Psychology of Self-Affirmation: Sustaining the Integrity of the Self. In Berkowitz, Leonard (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, vol. 21: Social Psychological Studies of the Self: Perspectives and Programs, pp. 261–302. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Steele, Claude M. (1997). A Threat in the Air: How Stereotypes Shape Intellectual Identity and Performance. American Psychologist, 52(6): 613–629.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Steele, Claude M. and Aronson, Joshua (1995). Stereotype Threat and the Intellectual Test Performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(5): 797–811.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Steele, Claude M., Spencer, Steven J., and Aronson, Joshua (2002). Contending with Group Image: The Psychology of Stereotype and Social Identity Threat. In Zanna, Mark P. (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, vol. 34, pp. 379–440. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Swidler, Ann (1986). Culture in Action: Symbols and Strategies. American Sociological Review, 51: 273–286.Google Scholar
Tajfel, Henri and Turner, John C. (1986). The Social Identity Theory of Intergroup Behaviours. Chicago, IL: Nelson-Hall.Google Scholar
Taylor, Shelly E. and Brown, Jonathon D. (1988). Illusion and Well-Being: A Social Psychological Perspective on Mental Health. Psychological Bulletin, 103: 193–210.Google Scholar
Tomaka, Joe, Blascovich, Jim, Kelsey, Robert M., and Leitten, Christopher L. (1993). Subjective, Physiological, and Behavioral Effects of Threat and Challenge Appraisal. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65(2): 248–260.Google Scholar
Townsend, Sarah S., Major, Brenda, Gangi, Cynthia E., and Mendes, Wendy Berry (2011). From “In the Air” to “Under the Skin”: Cortisol Responses to Social Identity Threat. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 37(2): 151–164.Google Scholar
Utsey, Shawn O., Ponterotto, Joseph G., Reynolds, Amy L., and Cancelli, Anthony A. (2000). Racial Discrimination, Coping, Life Satisfaction, and Self-Esteem Among African Americans. Journal of Counseling & Development, 78(1): 72–80.Google Scholar
Williams, David R. and Mohammed, Selina A. (2009). Discrimination and Racial Disparities in Health: Evidence and Research Needed. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 32(1): 20–47.Google Scholar
Williams, David R. and Williams-Morris, Ruth (2000). Racism and Mental Health: The African American Experience. Ethnicity & Health, 5(3-4): 243–268.Google Scholar
Williams, David R., Yu, Yan, Jackson, James S., and Anderson, Norman B. (1997). Racial Differences in Physical and Mental Health: Socio-Economic Status, Stress, and Discrimination. Journal of Health Psychology, 2(3): 335–351.Google Scholar
Wong, Carol A., Eccles, Jacquelynne S., and Sameroff, Arnold (2003). The Influence of Ethnic Discrimination and Ethnic Identification on African American Adolescents' School and Socioemotional Adjustment. Journal of Personality, 71(6): 1197–1232.Google Scholar
Yerkes, Robert M. and Dodson, John D. (1908). The Relation of Strength of Stimulus to Rapidity of Habit-Formation. Journal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology, 18: 4569–4582.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yoo, Hyung Chol and Lee, Richard M. (2005). Ethnic Identity and Approach-Type Coping as Moderators of the Racial Discrimination/Well-Being Relation in Asian Americans. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 52(4): 497–506.Google Scholar