Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-q99xh Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-25T19:48:03.810Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

The Life of the Self in Christian Spirituality and Contemporary Psychoanalysis

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  09 September 2014

John McDargh*
Affiliation:
Boston College

Abstract

This article explores modern psychoanalytic object relations theory as a potential resource for Christian spirituality in the development of an integrated theological and psychological model of the self. The necessity for such a model is first suggested by considering some potential dangers within the current revival of modes of “imageless” prayer. A suggestive effort that has already been made to construct a “spectrum” model of self development that combines psychoanalytic insight with the psychology of Theravada Buddhism is then examined. The final section assesses the interpretive power of a similar model worked out for the distinctive religious vision of Christian spirituality.

Type
Articles
Copyright
Copyright © The College Theology Society 1984

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 For a review of the Freudian critique of religion as well as an assessment of the implications for the study of religion of subsequent revisions within psychoanalysis see Meissner, William S.J., , Psychoanalysis and Religious Experience (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1984).Google Scholar

2 Merton, Thomas, Seven Storey Mountain (Garden City, NY: Doubleday Image, 1970 [1948]), p. 449.Google Scholar

3 Pennington, Basil O.C.S.O., , Centering Prayer: Renewing An Ancient Christian Prayer Form (Garden City, NY: Doubleday Image, 1982Google Scholar); DeMello, Anthony S.J., , Sadhana: A Way to God (St. Louis, MO: Institute of Jesuit Sources, 1978);Google ScholarRogers, Barbara, In the Center: The Story of a Retreat (Notre Dame, IN: Ave Maria, 1983).Google Scholar

4 For a discussion of the gifts and the potential limitations of DeMello's appropriation of Eastern meditative practice for Christian prayer see Egan, Harvey S.J., , “Prayer and Contemplation in Orthopraxis,” Proceedings of the CathoJic Theological Society of America 35 (1980), 102–12.Google Scholar See also by the same author, What Are They Saying About Mysticism (New York: Paulist, 1982), ch. 7.Google Scholar There have been a number of serious scholarly efforts in recent years to work out a responsible integration of Eastern and Western spiritual disciplines (e.g., the work of William Johnston, S.J. and Raimundo Panikkar). Particularly interesting in the terms of this article however are accounts that also describe the inner experience of the Western Christian attempting this process of crossing-over. See for example Eusden, John Dykstra, Zen and Christian: The Journey Between (New York: Crossroad, 1981)Google Scholar and most recently O'Hanlon, Daniel J. S.J., , “Integration of Christian Practices: A Western Christian Looks East,” Studies in the Spirituality of Jesuits 16/3 (May 1984), 130.Google Scholar

5 May, Gerald, Will and Spirit: A Contemplative Psychology (New York: Harper & Row, 1982).Google Scholar

6 Lasch, Christopher, The Culture of Narcissism (New York: Norton, 1979);Google ScholarSennett, Richard, The Fall of Public Man (New York: Knopf, 1977);Google ScholarHabermas, Jurgen, Legitimation Crisis (Boston: Beacon, 1973).Google Scholar

7 Elshtain, Jean Bethke, “The Self: Reborn, Undone, Transformed,” Telos 44 (Summer 1980), 102.Google Scholar

8 John Rowan, chairperson of the Association for Humanistic Psychology in Great Britain, has recently suggested that humanistic psychology has been suffering from Maslow's original failure to differentiate among very different kinds and qualities of “transcendent” or “mystical” experiences. In making an effort to draw such distinctions, Rowan argues that the only “safe gateway” to the formally “religious” experiences (“Deity as Substance” and “Deity as Process” in his terms) is a solid foundation in personal growth at the psychological level of “the real self.” Prescinding from his terminology, the idea is quite close to the argument of this paper. Rowan, J., “The Real Self and Mystical Experiences,” Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 23/2 (1983), 927.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

9 Deikman, Arthur, “The Missing Center” in Zinberg, N., ed., Alternate States of Consciousness (New York: Macmillan, 1977).Google Scholar See also Willis, Robert J., “Meditation to Fit the Person: Psychology and the Meditative Way,” Journal of Religion and Health 18/2 (1979), 93119.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

10 Deikman, Arthur J. M.D., , The Observing Self: Mysticism and Psychotherapy (Boston: Beacon, 1982).Google Scholar

11 Engler, John H., “Vicissitudes of the Self According to Psychoanalysis and Buddhism: A Spectrum Model of Object Relations Development,” Psychoanalysis and Contemporary Culture 6/1 (Spring 1983), 2972.Google Scholar

12 Goleman, Daniel, The Varieties of Meditative Experience (New York: Dutton, 1977).Google Scholar

13 Concentrative meditation is popularly available as Transcendental Meditation (TM) though it also characterizes the practice of the Swami Muktananda and other current teachers. Vipassana meditation, the tradition of Theravada Buddhism, is primarily practiced and studied in this country at the Insight Meditation Center in Barre, Massachusetts. This center has regular ties with meditation centers in Burma, Thailand, and Sri Lanka. The relationship between these two methods of meditation is of course immensely more complicated than the typology suggests. Concentrative meditation may be employed as a preparation for insight meditation and apparently is so prescribed by teachers in the Theravada tradition for persons whose level of psychic distress is so great that they would be overwhelmed by the demands of vipassana. For an understanding of how the Theravada doctrine informs actual therapeutic practice see Roccasalvo, Joseph, “The Thai Practice of Psychiatry and the Doctrine of Anatta,” Review of Existential Psychiatry and Psychology 17/2, 3 (19801981).Google Scholar

14 Nyanaponika, , The Heart of Buddhist Meditation (New York: Samuel Weiser, 1973), p. 30.Google Scholar

15 Engler, “Vicissitudes of the Self.…”

16 The Psychological changes during the process of vipassana meditation have been empirically studied by Engler in collaboration with Dr. Daniel Brown of Cambridge City Hospital using a Rorschach method. Brown, D. & Engler, J., “The Stages of Mindfulness Meditation: A Validation Study,” Journal of Transpersonal Psychology 12/2 (1981), 143–92.Google Scholar

17 Engler, “Vicissitudes of the Self.…”

18 For introductions to psychoanalytic object relations theory see Mendez, A. M. and Fine, H. T., “A Short History of the British School of Object Relations Theory and Ego Psychology,” Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic 40 (1976), 357–82;Google ScholarGuntrip, Harry, Psychoanalytic Object Relations Theory, Therapy and the Self (New York: Basic, 1971);Google Scholar or, most comprehensively, an excellent recent book, Greenberg, Jay and Mitchell, Stephen, Object Relations in Psychoanalytic Theory (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1983).Google Scholar

19 Buntrip, Harry, Phenomena, Schizoid, Object Relations and the Self (New York: International Universities Press, 1969), p. 255.Google Scholar

20 Mahler, M., Pine, F., and Bergman, A., The Psychological Birth of the Human Infant: Symbiosis and Individuation (New York: Basic, 1975).Google Scholar

21 Sandler, J. and Jaffe, W., “Comments on the Psychoanalytic Psychology of Adaptation with Special Reference to the Role of Affects and the Representational World,” International Journal of Psychoanalysis 49 (1968), 445–54.Google Scholar

22 Though Engler has not submitted this hypothesis yet to any actual clinical evaluation of meditation subjects, in his paper he cautiously offers the judgment that many function at a level of personality organization identified in the literature as “borderline,” a diagnostic category defined by similar internal object relations and external incapacities in relationships. See Masterson, J. F. and Rinsley, D. B., “The Borderline Syndrome: The Role of the Mother in the Genesis and Psychic Structure of the Borderline Personality” in Lax, R.et al., Rapprochement: The Critical Subphase of Separation-Individuation (New York: Aronson, 1980).Google Scholar

23 Engler, “Vicissitudes of the Self.…”

24 Merton, Thomas, Contemplative Prayer (Garden City, NY: Doubleday Image, 1971), p. 108.Google Scholar

25 For a detailed discussion see Egan, Harvey, “The Cloud of Unknowing and Pseudo-Mysticism,” Thought 54/213 (1979), 162–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

26 Moore, Peter, “Mystical Experience, Mystical Doctrine, Mystical Technique” in Katz, Steven T., ed., Mysticism and Philosophical Analysis (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978), pp. 101–31.Google Scholar

27 Goldstein, quoted in Goleman, p. xix.

28 Any statements like this must of course be made only with hesitancy and a willingness to be corrected. A quite different interpretation of object relations theory, for example, is set out in Kara's, Ashoka article “The Ego Dilemma and the Buddhist Experience of Enlightenment,” Journal of Religion and Health 18/2 (1979).CrossRefGoogle Scholar Fora careful analysis of the contrasting and converging theological anthropologies of Buddhism and Christianity see DeSilva, Lynn, The Problem of the Self in Buddhism and Christianity (New York: Barnes & Noble, 1975).Google Scholar

29 de Chardin, Teilhard, The Divine Milieu (New York: Harper & Row, 1960), p. 116.Google Scholar

30 Merton, Thomas, The Last of the Fathers (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1954), p. 52.Google Scholar

31 Merton, , Contemplative Prayer, p. 83.Google Scholar

32 The inherently religious significance of the interpersonal construction of the self was the major argument of John MacMurray's 1953 Gifford Lectures—and by no coincidence MacMurray was a mentor of W. R. D. Fairbairn, an influential object relations theorist. See MacMurray, J., Persons in Relation (London: Faber & Faber, 1957).Google Scholar

33 Moore, Sebastian, The Fire and the Rose Are One (New York: Seabury, 1980), p. 11.Google Scholar

34 Angyal, Andras, Neurosis and Treatment, ed. Hanfmann, E. and Jones, R. M. (New York: John Wiley, 1965), pp. 1819.Google Scholar

35 See Winnicott, D. W., The Maturationai Processes and the Facilitating Environment (London: Hogarth, 1966);Google ScholarPlaying and Reality (London: Tavistock, 1971);Google Scholar and Davis, Madeleine and Wallbridge, David, Boundary and Space: An Introduction to the Work of D. W. Winnicott (New York: Brunner, 1981).Google Scholar

36 Rizzuto, Ana-Maria, The Birth of the Living God (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979).Google ScholarMcDargh, John, Psychoanalytic Object Relations Theory and the Study of Religion (Washington, DC: University Press of America, 1983).Google Scholar

37 For an account of the life-long necessity of “transitional relatedness” see Horton, Paul, Solace: The Missing Dimension in Psychiatry (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981).Google Scholar

38 Brandt, Anthony, “Self Confrontations,” Psychology Today 14/5 (October 1980), 78101.Google Scholar

39 Kohut, Heinz, The Analysis of the Self (New York: International Universities Press, 1971).Google Scholar

40 It is critical to emphasize, as Merton and nearly all the Christian mystical writers have at one point or another, that the inner moves characterized by relinquishment of discursive prayer and a descent into “darkness” only occur because there has been a careful nurturance in the “holding environment” (Winnicott) of a Christian community. As Merton put it, “One cannot go beyond what one has not yet attained, and normally the realization that God is ‘beyond images, symbols and ideas’ dawns only on one who has made a good use of all these things, who has a thorough and mature monastic culture.” Merton, , Contemplative Prayer, p. 85.Google Scholar

41 Merton, Thomas, Conjectures of a Guilty Bystander (Garden City, NY: Doubleday Image, 1968), p. 156.Google Scholar