Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gbm5v Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-27T13:22:19.868Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Animal reservoirs and residual ‘foci’ of Trypanosoma brucei gambiense sleeping sickness in West Africa

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 September 2011

D. H. Molyneux
D. H. Molyneux
Affiliation:
Department of Biology, University of Salford, Salford, Greater Manchester, U.K. M5 4WT
Get access

Abstract

The epidemiology of T. b. gambiense is reviewed in the light of recent findings, and potential animal reservoir hosts are listed. The discovery of distinct zymodemes in pigs with isozyme characteristics identical with stocks previously isolated only from man, and the human plasma resistant character (BIIT positive) of these stocks, is indicative of a zoonotic source of infection of man in some areas of West Africa. The likely epidemiological differences between savanna and forest foci are emphasised.

The focality of West African sleeping sickness is discussed in relation to the various hypotheses which have been propounded to explain this phenomenon. Recent observations which suggest Glossina can move longer distances on wind fields than hitherto supposed, and its possible implications as an explanation of some residual foci, is discussed. The possible impact of onchocerciasis on the distribution of foci is mentioned.

Keywords

TrypanosomiasisT. b. gambienseGlossinaEpidemiologyReservoir hostsWest Africa
Type
Research Article
Information
International Journal of Tropical Insect Science , Volume 1 , Issue 1: Epidemiology of African Trypanosomiasis , March 1980 , pp. 59 - 63
Copyright
Copyright © ICIPE 1980

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Allsop, R. (1972a) Immobilization of game animals in trypanosomiasis research. Bull. Wld. Hlth. Org. 47, 815–819.Google Scholar
Allsop, R. (1972b) The role of game animals in the maintenance of endemic and enzoonotic trypanosomiasis in the Lambwe Valley, South Nyanza District, Kenya. Bull. Wld. Hlth. Org. 47, 735–746.Google Scholar
Ashford, R. W. (1977) The comparative ecology of Leishmania aethiopica. In Ecologie des Leishmcmiases Colloques Internationaux du CNRS No. 239, 233–240.Google Scholar
Bruce, D., Hamerton, A. E., Bateman, H. R., Mackie, F. P. and Bruce, Lady (1911) Sleeping sickness and other diseases of man and animals in Uganda during the years 1908–9–10. Repts. Sleep. Sickn. Comm. Roy. Soc. No. 11.Google Scholar
Corson, J. F. (1938) A third note on a strain of Trypanosoma gambiense transmitted by Glossina morsitans. Ann. trop. Med. Parasit. 32, 245–248.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Denecke, K. (1941) Menschenpathogene Trypanosomes des Hundes auf Fernando Po. Ein Beitrag zur Epidemiologie der Schlafkrankheit. Arch. F. Hyg. Bakt. 166, 331–348.Google Scholar
Duke, H. L. (1912) Antelope and their relation to trypanosomiasis. Proc. R. Soc. B 85, 156–169.Google Scholar
Duke, H. L. (1913) Rept. Sleep. Sickn. Comm. R. Soc. No. 13.Google Scholar
Duke, H. L. (1928) Studies on the Bionomics of the Polymorphic Trypanosomes of Man and Ruminants. Final Report of the League of Nations International Commission on Human Trypanosomiasis.Google Scholar
Duviard, D. (1977) Migrations of Dysdercus spp. (Hemiptera: Pyrrhocoridae) related to the movements of the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone in West Africa. Bull. ent. Res. 67, 185–204.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fraser, A. D. and Duke, H. L. (1912) Repts. Sleep. Skkn. Comm. R. Soc. No. 12.Google Scholar
Frezil, J. L. and Carnevale, P. (1976) Le problème du réservoir de virus et du maintien des foyers de trypanosomiase humaine en Afrique Centrale. Cah. O.R.S.T.O.M. sér. Ent. méd. Parasitol. 14, 307–313.Google Scholar
Gibson, W., Mehlitz, D., Lanham, S. M. and Godfrey, D. G. (1978) The identification of Trypanosoma brucei gambiense in Libérián pigs and dogs by isoenzymes and by resistance to human plasma. Tropenmed. Parasit. 29, 335–345.Google Scholar
Godfrey, D. G. (1978) Identification of economically important parasites. Nature, Lond. 273, 600–604.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Godfrey, D. G. and Killick Kendrick, R. (1967) Cyclically transmitted infections of Trypanosoma brucei, T. rhodesiense and T. gambiense in chimpanzees. Trans. R. Soc. trop. Med. Hyg. 61, 781–791.Google Scholar
Godfrey, D. G. and Kilgour, V. (1976) Enzyme electrophoresis in characterizing the causative organism of Gambian trypanosomiasis. Trans. Roy. Soc. trop. Med. Hyg. 70, 219–224.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gray, A. R. (1970) A study of antigenic relationships of isolates of T. brucei collected from a herd of cattle kept in one locality for 5 years. J. gen. Microbiol. 62, 301–313.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gray, A. R. (1972) Variable agglutinogenic antigens of Trypanosoma gambiense and their distribution among isolates of the trypanosome collected in different places in Nigeria. Trans. Roy. Soc. trop. Med. Hyg. 66, 263–284.Google Scholar
Janssens, P. G. (1971) Review of the sleeping sickness situation. Tropenmed. Parasit. 22, 213–224.Google ScholarPubMed
Joshua, R. A., Herbert, W. J. and White, R. G. (1978) Acquisition by Trypanosoma brucei brucei of potential infectivity for man by passage through birds. Lancet 1, 724–725.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kleine, F. K. and Fischer, W. (1911) Die Rolle der Sangetiere bei der Verbretung der Schlafkrankheit und Trypanosomen befunde sei Sangetierea am Tanganyika. Z. Hyg. Infekt. 70, 1–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Laveissière, C. (1976) Un Foyer de tryanosomiase humaine sans glossines: Ouahigouya (Republiqe de Haute-Volta). Cah. O.R.S.T.O.M. sér. Ent. med. Párásítol. 14, 359–367.Google Scholar
Laveissière, C. and Boreham, P. F. L. (1976) Ecologie de Glossina tachinoides Westwood, 1850, en savane humide d'Afrique de l'Ouest. Part I. Preferences trophiques. Cah. O.R.S.T.O.M. sér. Ent. méd. Parasitol. 14, 187–200.Google Scholar
Larivière, M. (1957) Réceptivite du Cricetomys gambianus (Rat de Gambie) au Trypanosoma gambiense. C. r. Soc. Biol. 151, 1349.Google Scholar
Le Berre, R., Walsh, J. F., Davies, J. B., Philippon, B. and Garms, R. (1978) Control of onchocerciasis: medical entomology—a necessary pre-requisite to socioeconomic development. In Proceedings of Medical Entomology Centenary Symposium, November 1977, pp. 70–75. Royal Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg., London.Google Scholar
Mehlitz, D. (1977) The behaviour in the blood incubation infectivity test of four Trypanozoon strains isolated from pigs in Liberia. Trans. Roy. Soc. trop. Med. Hyg. 71, 86.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mehlitz, D. (1978) Untersuchungen zur Empfänglichkeit von Mastomys natalensis fur Trypanosoma (Trypanozoon) brucei gambiense. Tropenmed. Parasit. 29, 101–107.Google ScholarPubMed
Mehlitz, D. (1979) Trypanosome infections in domestic animals in Liberia. Tropenmed. Parasit. 30, 212–219.Google Scholar
Mesnil, F. and Blanchard, M. (1912) Infections des Poules du aux Trypanosoma gambiense et T. rhodesiense. C. r. Soc. Biol. 72, 938–940.Google Scholar
Molyneux, D. H. (1971) Observations on naturally occurring mammals as reservoir hosts of Trypanosoma brucei gambiense. International Scientific Committee for Trypanosomiasis Research, 13th Meeting Lagos. Commission for Technical Cooperation in Africa South of the Sahara, pp. 81–84.Google Scholar
Molyneux, D. H. (1973) Animal reservoirs and Gambian trypanosomiasis. Ann. Soc. Belge. Med. trop. 53, 605–618.Google ScholarPubMed
Molyneux, D. H., Baldry, D. A. T., Van Wettere, P., Takken, W. and De Raadt, P. (1978) The experimental application of insecticides from a helicopter for the control of riverine populations of Glossina tachinoides in West Africa. I. Objectives, experimental area and insecticides evaluated. PANS 24, 391–403.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Molyneux, D. H., Baldry, D. A. T. and Fairhurst, C. P. (1979) Tsetse movement in wind fields: possible epidemiological and entomological implications for trypanosomiasis and its control. Ada trop. 36, 53–65.Google Scholar
Nash, T. A. M. (1978) A review of mainly entomological research which has aided the understanding of human trypanosomiasis and its control. Medical Entomology Centenary Symposium Proceedings, 23–25 Nov. 1977, pp. 39–17.Google Scholar
Newton, B. A. (1976) Biochemical Approaches to the taxonomy of kinetoplastid flagellates. In Biology of the Kine-toplastida (Ed. by Lumsden, W. H. R. and Evans, D. A.) Vol. 1, pp. 405–434. Academic Press, London.Google Scholar
Page, W. A. and McDonald, W. A. (1959) An assessment of the degree of man-fly contact exhibited by Glossina palpalis at water holes in northern and southern Nigeria. Ann. Trop. Med. Parasit. 53, 162–165.Google Scholar
De Raadt, P. and Seed, J. R. (1977) Trypanosomes causing disease of man in Africa. In Parasitic Protozoa, Vol. 1. pp. 175–237. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Rainey, R. C. (1974) Biometeorology and insect flight: some aspects of energy exchange. Ann. Rev. Ent. 19, 407–434.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rickman, L. R. and Robson, J. (1970) The testing of proven Trypanosoma brucei and T rhodesiense strains by the blood incubation infectivity test. Bull. Wld. Hlth. Org. 42, 911–916.Google Scholar
Roubaud, E. (1920) Les mouches tsetses en Afrique Occidentale Francaise. Nos connaissances actuelles sur leure historie et leur role pathogène. Bull. com. Et. Hist. Sci. d'AOF 3, 257–300.Google Scholar
Scott, D. (1970) The epidemiology of Gambian sleeping sickness. In The African Trypanosomiases (Ed. by Mulligan, H. W. and Potts, W. H.), pp. 614–644. Allen & Unwin, London.Google Scholar
Thomson, K. D. B. (1969) Sleeping sickness in the northern states of Nigeria. An outline of the present situation (May 1968). WHO TRYP/INF/69.32, 7pp. plus map (unpublished document).Google Scholar
Van Den Berghe, L., Chardome, M. et Peel, E. (1963) Demonstration par transmission cyclique du role possible de quatre petits mammifères africains comme reservoirs de trypanosomes du groupe brucei. Ann. Soc. Belge. Med. Trop. 2, 157–162.Google Scholar
Van Hoof, L. M. J. (1947) Observations on trypanosomiasis in the Belgian Congo. Trans. R. Soc. trop. Med. Hyg. 40, 728–761.Google Scholar
Watson, H. J. C. (1962) The domestic pig as a reservoir of T. gambiense. In International Committee for Trypanosomiasis Research, CCTA Publications No. 88, 327.Google Scholar
Wijers, D. J. B. (1960) Studies on the behaviour of trypanosomes belonging to the brucei subgroup in the mammalian host. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Amsterdam, 151 PP.Google Scholar
Woo, P. T. K. and Soltys, M. A. (1969) The experimental infections of reptiles with Trypanosoma brucei. Ann. trop Med. Parasit. 63, 35–38.Google Scholar
Yesufu, H. M. (1971) Experimental transmission of Trypanosoma gambiense to domestic animals. Ann. trop. Med. Parasit. 65, 341–347.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yorke, W. & Blacklock, B. (1915) The reservoir of human trypanosomiasis in Sierra Leone. Ann. trop. Med. Parasit. 9, 383–390.Google Scholar
Zillman, U. and Mehlitz, D. (1979) The natural occurrence of Trypanozoon in domestic chickens in Ivory Coast. Tropenmed. Parasit. 30, 244–248.Google Scholar