Published online by Cambridge University Press: 16 June 2020
1 Buchan, Russell, ‘Cyber Espionage and International Law’ in Tsagourias, Nicholas and Buchan, Russell (eds), Research Handbook on International Law and Cyberspace (Edward Elgar 2015) 168Google Scholar.
2 eg, Deeks, Ashley, ‘An International Legal Framework for Surveillance’ (2015) 55 Virginia Journal of International Law 291Google Scholar; Lubin, Asaf, ‘“We Only Spy on Foreigners”: The Myth of a Universal Right to Privacy and the Practice of Foreign Mass Surveillance’ (2018) 18 Chicago Journal of International Law 502Google Scholar.
3 This view is grounded in the idea that peacetime espionage is not directly regulated by international law: see, eg, Scott, Roger D, ‘Territorially Intrusive Intelligence Collection and International Law’ (1999) 46 Air Force Law Review 217, 223Google Scholar; Demarest, Geoffrey B, ‘Espionage in International Law’ (1996) 24 Denver Journal of International Law and Policy 321Google Scholar.
4 Lubin, Asaf, ‘Espionage as a Sovereign Right under International Law and Its Limits’ (2016) 24(3) ILSA Quarterly 22Google Scholar.
5 Schmitt, Michael N (ed), Tallinn Manual 2.0 on the International Law Applicable to Cyber Operations (Cambridge University Press 2017) 20–21CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
6 See, eg, Wright, Quincy, ‘Espionage and the Doctrine of Non-Intervention in Internal Affairs’ in Stanger, Roland (ed), Essays on Espionage and International Law (Ohio State University Press 1962) 3, 17Google Scholar.
7 Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v US) Merits, Judgment [1986] ICJ Rep 14, [186].
8 eg, Buchan, Russell, ‘International Community and the Occupation of Iraq’ (2007) 12 Journal of Conflict and Security Law 37CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Buchan, Russell, ‘The International Law of Naval Blockade and Israel's Interception of the Mavi Marmara’ (2011) 58 Netherlands International Law Review 209CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Buchan, Russell, ‘The Rule of Surrender in International Humanitarian Law’ (2018) 51 Israel Law Review 3CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
9 See Hague Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulation concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land, Martens Nouveau Recueil (ser 3) 461 (entered into force 26 January 1910), art 24.
10 ibid art 31.
11 For some remarks on this, see Longobardo, Marco, ‘(New) Cyber Exploitation and (Old) International Humanitarian Law’ (2017) 77 Zeitschrift für ausländisches öffentliches Recht und Völkerrecht 809Google Scholar.
12 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (entered into force 23 March 1976) 999 UNTS 171.
13 European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (entered into force 3 September 1953) 213 UNTS 221.
14 Navarrete, Iñaki, ‘L'espionnage en temps de paix en droit international public’ (2016) 53 Canadian Yearbook of International Law 1Google Scholar. The book by Gény, François, Méthode d'interprétation et sources en droit privé positif: essai critique (Libr Marescq Ainé 1899)Google Scholar is referred to only as quoted by D'Amato, Antony, The Concept of Custom in International Law (Cornell University Press 1971) 49Google Scholar.
15 eg, Lafouasse, Fabien, ‘L'espionnage en droit international’ (2001) 47 Annuaire Français de Droit International 63CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Aust, Helmut Philipp, ‘Spionage im Zeitalter von Big Data – Globale Überwachung und der Schutz der Privatsphäre im Völkerrecht’ (2014) 52 Archiv des Voelkerrechts 375Google Scholar.