Published online by Cambridge University Press: 27 June 2017
Evangelical rap may sound like an oxymoron, but it was one of the most important trends in evangelical America as the Christian right rose to new levels of power in the 1990s. The trio DC Talk sold millions of album and dominated the Christian charts from the early 1990s and into the early 2000s. This was more than pure entertainment. Popular culture, and especially popular culture targeted at teens, is an important venue for disseminating values and sustaining religious identities. The artists promoted by the Christian music industry have to reflect the ideas and values that parents and central evangelical institutions wish to teach their children. In the 1990s, racial reconciliation was one of the most important issues to evangelical America and DC Talk were poster boys for a multiracial and multicultural America. Therefore this article takes DC Talk as a starting point to discuss evangelical engagement with race issues in the 1990s. DC Talk wrapped up evangelical individualism and color-blind conservatism in hip-hop garb, trying to reinvent a group with a checkered past when it comes to race relations as the hope of a racially harmonious America.
1 Henry Allen, “Almost Heaven, in Virginia: The Believers, Rocking to the Lord at Fishnet Fest,” Washington Post, 14 July 1990, C1.
2 “Evangelical” is an umbrella term that covers a diverse movement and culture. However, evangelicals are often defined by four characteristics, first identified by the historian David Bebbington: (1) belief in the need for a “born-again” experience to be saved, (2) emphasis on missions and activism (3), respect for the Bible as the ultimate authority in life (4) focus on Jesus’ death on the cross as an act of atonement for the sins of mankind. In this article I use “evangelical” and “Christian” interchangeably to reflect evangelical parlance. Bebbington, David W., Evangelicalism in Modern Britain: A History from the 1730s to the 1980s (London: Unwin Hyman, 1989)Google Scholar.
3 Michele Orecklin, “Harmonic Divergence,” Time, Oct. 1998, 125.
4 See e.g. Lisa Gubernick and Robert La Franco, “Rocking with God,” Forbes, 2 Jan. 1995, 40–41; and Steve Rabey, “Contemporary Sounds Move into Mainstream,” Christianity Today, 15 May 1995, at www.christianitytoday.com/ct/1995/may15/5t6055.html, accessed 12 March 2015.
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11 Bergler, Thomas E., The Juvenilization of American Christianity (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm B. Eerdman Press, 2012), 6Google Scholar. Evangelical ministries have for generations made their own baptized versions of popular culture in order to win souls. For earlier use of popular culture for evangelistic and political purposes see e.g. Sutton; Bendroth; and Harding.
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21 Gamerman.
22 Jamie Lee Rake, “Putting DC (Talk) into Action,” Today's Christian Music, n.d.
23 Anjetta McQueen, “Devoted to Rap: Religiously a Dozen or So Groups and Artists Are Using the Secular Style to Make a Joyful Noise for the Lord,” The Inquirer, 23 Feb. 1991, C01.
24 “DC Talk: Rap, Rock, and Soul,” YouTube video, 32:46, posted by Jocke Persson, 21 July 2013, at www.youtube.com/watch?v=KvLyW8tKw9g.
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34 The historian Randall Balmer has suggested that this was the issue that inspired evangelical leaders to political action. See e.g. Balmer, Randall H., Thy Kingdom Come: How the Religious Right Distorts Faith and Threatens America; An Evangelical's Lament (New York: Perseus Book, 2007), 15–16Google Scholar; Balmer, , “Fundamentalism, the First Amendment, and the Rise of the Religious Right,” William and Mary Bill of Rights Journal, 18, 4 (2010), 889–900Google Scholar.
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36 DC Talk, “Walls,” Nu Thang, Forefront, 1991.
37 DC Talk, “Walls,” YouTube video, 4:11, posted by NRT Rocks, 29 July 2008, at www.youtube.com/watch?v=xTdUF_j8Q-I.
38 Fuller, Jennifer, “Debating the Present through the Past: Representations of the Civil Rights Movement in the 1990s,” in Romano, Renee C. and Raiford, Leigh, eds., The Civil Rights Movement in American Memory (Athens and London: The University of Georgia Press, 2006), 167–96Google Scholar.
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41 Fiona Soltes, “Rap Tribute to King to open in Giles,” The Tennessean. 19 Jan. 1992, from the DC Talk Subject Folder, Center for Popular Music, Middle Tennessee State University; Steve Hochman, “Pop Eye,” Los Angeles Times, 26 Jan. 1992, 61; “Pulaski Police Ready for Klan March Today,” Times Daily, 9 Jan. 1993, 3B; Dan George “Klan Leader Claims March, Rally Successful,” Times Daily, 20 Jan. 1986, 6A; Elizabeth Pagano, “DC Talk Plans to Rap in Pulaski ‘Love Rally’,” Nashville Banner, 22 Jan. 1992, from the DC Talk Subject Folder, Center for Popular Music, Middle Tennessee State University; and “Pulaski Marches Forward,” The Tennessean, 21 Jan. 1992, from the DC Talk Subject Folder, Center for Popular Music, Middle Tennessee State University; Mark Alan Powell, “DC Talk,” in The Encyclopedia of Contemporary Christian Music, 242; and Edward Walsh, “Birthplace of the Klan Turns Its Back on March: Reversed Plaque Marks the Historic Spot,” Washington Post, 26 Jan. 1993, A4.
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43 Dan Chu, “Arizona's Outspoken New Governor, Evan Mecham, Seems to Enjoy Diving Straight into Political Hot Water,” People, 27 Aug. 1987, at http://people.com/archive/arizonas-outspoken-new-governor-evan-mecham-seems-to-enjoy-diving-straight-into-political-hot-water-vol-28-no-8, accessed 30 May 2017; Jane Gross, “Arizona Hopes Holiday for King Will Mend Its Image,” New York Times, 17 Jan. 1993, 16.
44 Public Enemy. “By the Time I Get to Arizona,” YouTube video, 5:46, posted by PublicEnemyVevo, 27 Aug. 2010, at www.youtube.com/watch?v=zrFOb_f7ubw.
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47 Miller, Billy Graham and the Rise of the Republican South, 33.
48 Ibid., 94–96.
49 As quoted in Harding, The Book of Jerry Falwell, 26–27; and in Williams, God's Own Party, 86.
50 Martin Luther King, “I Have a Dream,” no publication date, at www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/mlkihaveadream.htm, accessed 10 Feb. 2016. See e.g. Carson, Clayborne, “Martin Luther King Jr. and the African-American Social Gospel,” in West, Cornel and Glaude, Eddie S. Jr., eds., African American Religious Thought: An Anthology (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2003), 696–714Google Scholar. “Martin Luther King, Jr.: Influence of Social Gospel Mov't,” YouTube video, 00:37, posted by mrholthisoty, 20 April 2008, at www.youtube.com/watch?v=WGuDpBANETg.
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53 Pagano, “DC Talk Plans to Rap in Pulaski.”
54 Emerson and Smith, Divided by Faith. See also Steven Miller, Billy Graham and the Rise of the Republican South; Peter G. Heltzel, Jesus and Justice.
55 DC Talk, “Free at Last,” Free at Last, Forefront, 1992.
56 Free at Last: The Movie, 2002.
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68 Wallbuilders, Randall J. Stephens and Karl Giberson explain, takes an account from the book of Nehemiah about how the Israelites “reconstructed walls of Jerusalem and returned to the faith of their fathers.” In a similar vein, Americans today “could rebuild on the foundation of America's Christian past.” Randall J. Stephens and Karl Giberson, The Anointed: Evangelical Truth in a Secular Age (Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press), 84.
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76 Bob Smietana, “Americans Agree U.S. Has Come Far in Race Relations, but Has Long Way to Go,” LifeWay Research, 16 Dec. 2014, at www.lifewayresearch.com/2014/12/16/americans-agree-u-s-has-come-far-in-race-relations-but-long-way-to-go, accessed 14 Aug. 2015.
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79 Rodgers, 130.
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