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The Counter-Reformation of the Refugee: Exile and the Shaping of Catholic Militancy in the Dutch Revolt

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  17 September 2012

GEERT H. JANSSEN
GEERT H. JANSSEN
Affiliation:
Corpus Christi College, Oxford OX1 4JF; e-mail: geert.janssen@ccc.ox.ac.uk
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Abstract

This article explores the Catholic exile experience in the Dutch revolt of the 1570s and 1580s. It shows how Catholic refugees negotiated their stay in places such as Cologne and Douai and developed a more militant, Tridentine identity. This process of religious radicalisation is reflected in a series of white papers by leading refugees about Catholic renewal in the contested Netherlands. This article argues that Catholic exiles became the mobilising forces of a popular Counter-Reformation movement in the southern Netherlands, thereby facilitating the eventual split of the Low Countries into a northern and southern state.

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Articles
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The Journal of Ecclesiastical History , Volume 63 , Issue 4 , October 2012 , pp. 671 - 692
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2012

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References

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13 SAA, notariaat, Egide Verbraecken. The quotation is taken from a will made by P. Joossen, 29 Sept. 1583, fos 101v–102r.

14 See the diary of Cologne citizen Herman Weinsberg: Die autobiographischen Aufzeichnungen Hermann Weinsbergs: Digitale Gesamtausgabe, entries for 16 Mar., 19 July 1580; 16 Apr. 1581; 2 Jan. 1582. Available at http://www.weinsberg.uni–bonn.de/Home.

15 Dagboek van broeder Wouter Jacobsz, i. 211.

16 Unknown author to Alexander Farnese, 26 Jan. 1581, ARAB, Papieren van Staat en Audiëntie, 589, fo. 61.

17 Dagboek van broeder Wouter Jacobsz, i. 388–9.

18 Ibid. i. 158–9, 233.

19 This was a copy of Veldius, Jacobus, Daniel Propheta commentariis pro concione explicatus, Antwerp 1576Google Scholar. Buyck wrote the following poem on the title page: ‘Bis septem stuferis exsul me Clivica in urbe / Emit, cui nomen principis Vrna dedit. Scilicet ut tristi lenirem in commoda vitae, / Et patriae fleret cum Daniele vires’ : University Library, Amsterdam, sig. 273 G 20.

20 Dagboek van broeder Wouter Jacobsz, i. 162.

21 This is quoted in Viaene, ‘Vlaamse vluchtelingen’, 10.

22 Schoutens, Stephanus, Geschiedenis van het voormalig klooster der arme Claren te Antwerpen, Antwerp 1900, 66–100Google Scholar; Janssen, Geert H., ‘Quo Vadis? Catholic perceptions of flight and the revolt of the Low Countries, 1566–1609’, Renaissance Quarterly lxiv (2011), 472–99CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

23 Johannes Costerius, Institutio necessaria de exitu Aegypti et fuga Babylonis: id est, de egressu Catholicorum e civitatibus haereticorum Iuramentis & edictis, varioq; inevitabili contagio pollutis, Douai 1580.

24 Compare Walzer, Michael, Exodus and revolution, New York 1985, 49Google Scholar.

25 This becomess clear from ARAB, Audiëntie, 910, fos 52–100; cf. Viaene, ‘Vlaamse vluchtelingen’, 16, 30–1.

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28 Arndt, Johannes, Das Heilige Römische Reich und die Niederlande, 1566 bis 1648, Cologne 1998, 192–4, 217–30, 266–74Google Scholar; Kuckhoff, Josef, Die Geschichte des Gymnasium Tricoronatum: ein Querschnitt durch die Geschichte der Jugenderziehung in Köln vom 15. bis zum 18. Jahrhundert, Cologne 1931Google Scholar; von Molitor, H., Das Erzbistum Köln im Zeitalter der Glaubenskämpfe, 1515–1688, Cologne 2008Google Scholar; Vermaseren, De katholieke Nederlandse geschiedschrijving, 1–27; Samme Zijlstra, ‘Studying abroad: the student years of two Frisian brothers at Cologne and Douai (1582–1593)’, in K. Goudriaan, J. van Moolenbroek and A. Tervoort (eds), Education and learning in the Netherlands, 1400–1600: essays in honour of Hilde de Ridder-Symoens, Leiden 2004, 297–313.

29 The Jesuits in Douai had been expelled for a short period in 1578 when the town became involved with the revolt: Andriessen, J., De Jezuïeten en het samenhorigheidsbesef der Nederlanden, 1585–1648, Antwerp 1957, 16–17Google Scholar.

30 The Cologne college incorporated a large number of Jesuits of Netherlandish origin: HAK, Bestand Jesuiten, A17, A18, A19; ARSI, Provincia Rheni et Rheni Inferioris, 38, Cat. trien. et brev, Colonienis 1584.

31 Châtellier, Louis, Europe of the devout: the Catholic Reformation and the formation of a new society, trans. J. Birrell, Cambridge 1989, 3–15Google Scholar; Kettenmeyer, J. B., Die Anfänge der Marianischen Sodalität in Köln, 1576–1586, Münster 1928, 4–10Google Scholar.

32 Lists of membership (1576–88), HAK, Jesuiten, A52.

33 List of prefects (1576–89), ibid. A52a. On the later development of the sodality see Kettenmeyer, Die Anfänge, and Rebekka von Mallinckrodt, ‘Reichweite und Grenzen des Konfessionalisierungs-Paradigmas am Beispiel der Kölner Laienbruderschaften im 17. Jahrhundert’, in Kaspar von Greyerz and others (eds), Interkonfessionalität– Transkonfessionalität – binnenkonfessionelle Pluralität: Neue Forschungen zur Konfessionalisierungsthese, Heidelberg 2003, 16–47.

34 Costerus, Franciscus, Libellus sodalitatis, hoc est christianarum institutionum libri quinque, Antwerp 1586Google Scholar. Many editions exist. I have used the Dutch version, entitled Het boecsken der broederschap, dat is vijf boecken der Christelijcker leeringhen, Antwerp 1587, preface (no page numbers).

35 This becomes clear from HAK, Jesuiten, A51, a collection of papers regarding the sodality; Rheinische Akten zur Geschichte des Jesuitenordens, 1542–1582, ed. Josef Hansen, Bonn 1896, 703–4, 716; and Kettenmeyer, Die Anfänge, 16–18; cf. Châttelier, Europe of the devout, 33–46.

36 Costerus, Het boecsken, preface. An assessment is offered by Heal, Bridget, The cult of the Virgin Mary in early modern Germany: Protestant and Catholic piety, Cambridge 2007, 250–60Google Scholar.

37 Heal, Cult, 207–61.

38 van Roosbroeck, Robert, Emigranten: Nederlandse vluchtelingen in Duitsland (1550–1600), Leuven 1968, 135–57Google Scholar; Schilling, Niederländische Exulanten, esp. pp. 110–21.

39 Rheinische Akten, 754.

40 Die autobiographischen Aufzeichnungen Hermann Weinsbergs, entries for 24 Mar. 1578; 9 Mar. 1582.

41 Attestation for Elizabeth Styen, 31 Jan. 1585, SAA, notariaat, Egide Verbraecken, fo. 120r–v; Die autobiographischen Aufzeichnungen Hermann Weinsbergs, entry for 17 Feb. 1580; Kuckhoff, Die Geschichte, 63–4, 135, 159.

42 List of prefects (1576–89), HAK, Jesuiten, A52a; Kettenmeyer, Die Anfänge, 28.

43 Schilling, Niederländische Exulanten; Pettegree, Emden, esp. pp. 226–51. See also Alastair Duke, ‘Perspectives on European Calvinism’, in Alastair Duke, Gillian Lewis and Andrew Pettegree (eds), Calvinism in Europe, 1540–1620, Cambridge 1994, 5–6.

44 For Stempelse see Boeree, A.Th., ‘Het verraad van hopman Maarten Schets: een mislukte aanslag op Gouda in 1572’, Tijdschrift voor Geschiedenis xxxix (1924), 195–219Google Scholar; Droog, M. P. R., ‘De oprichting van de nuntiatuur te Keulen’, De Katholiek cxxxviii (1910), 109–12Google Scholar; Hibben, C. C., Gouda in revolt: particularism and pacifism in the revolt of the Netherlands, Utrecht 1983Google Scholar, 48, 52, 70–2, 266; Vermaseren, De katholieke Nederlandse geschiedschrijving, 18–24; and Uittreksel uit Francisci Dusseldorpii Annales, 1566–1616, ed. Robert Fruin, The Hague 1893, pp. li–liii, 479.

45 Romeinsche bronnen voor den kerkelijke-staatkundigen toestand der Nederlanden in de 16e eeuw, ed. G. Brom and H. Hensen, The Hague 1922, 242.

46 Compare letters in ARSI, Assistentia Germaniae, 137–II, 210; 138–II, 329; 157; Romeinsche bronnen, 280–2, 288, 293, 358, 419, 677–8, 706. See also Janssen, ‘Quo Vadis?’, 476–93.

47 ab Isselt, Michael, Michaelis ab Isselt Amorfortii svi temporis historia, in qua res in toto orbe terrarum gestae, tum praecipuè motuum Belgicorum sub Philippo II Hispaniarum rege & c. concitatorum origo et sucessus usque ad annum M.D.LXXXVI. perspicuè & accuratè describuntur, Cologne 1602, 648Google Scholar; Noordeloos, P., Pastoor Maarten Donk, Utrecht 1948, ii. 78Google Scholar.

48 Wilhelmus Lindanus to Don Juan, 24 July 1578, ARAB, Audiëntie, 1718/2; Lindanus to Farnese, 9 Jan., 10 Apr. 1581, ARAB, Audiëntie, 1806/1; various letters from exiles Jacques Ficq, Pierre Arentsoen, Willem Bonsen, Nicolaas Buyck, Jan Meeusz, Gerrit Gerritsz, Dirk Jan Deyman to Farnese, 1580s, ARAB, Audiëntie, 1840/4; Romeinsche bronnen, 281; cf. La Vie et les oeuvres de Gislain Bulteel d'Ypres, 1555–1611, ed. L. Bakelants, Brussels 1968, 251–484.

49 Costerius, Institutio, 7–9.

50 His membership is evident from HAK, Jesuiten, A52, fo. 61r. On Lindanus see van Beuningen, P.Th., Wilhelmus Lindanus als inquisiteur en bisschop: bijdrage tot zijn biografie (1525–1576), Assen 1976Google Scholar.

51 Jan Stempelse to Everardus Mercurianus, Cologne, 27 June 1577, ARSI, Germaniae, 138–I, 223. Note similar remarks about the militant spirit in the Cologne exile community in Laevinus Torrentius correspondance: période liégeoise, 1583–1587, ed. Marie Delcourt and Jean Hoyoux, Paris 1950, i. 182–6.

52 Audomarus, Petrus S., Declaratio cavssarvm, ob qvas Belgivm gravissimis, praemitur calamitatibus, cum demonstratione remedij aduersus easdem efficacissimi, Cologne 1582Google Scholar, preface.

53 ARAB, Audiëntie, 589; 1787/1; 1831/1; Christiaensz Bor, Pieter, Oorsprongk, begin, en vervolgh der Nederlandsche oorlogen, beroerten en borgerlyke oneenigheden, Amsterdam 1680Google Scholar, ii. 203–4. See also Guido Marnef, ‘Een Gentse proost in Keulen: Bucho Aytta en zijn rol in de Opstand, 1579–1581’, in A. Jans and others (eds), Liber amicorum Dr. J. Scheerder, Leuven 1987, 75–86, and Dudok van Heel, S. A. C., Van Amsterdamse burgers tot Europese aristocraten: de Heijnen–maagschap, 1400–1800, The Hague 2008, i. 87–91Google Scholar.

54 Some white papers have been published, but they have not been studied comparatively. See references to these and other plans in Archivalia in Italië belangrijk voor de geschiedenis van Nederland, ed. G. Brom, The Hague, 1908–14, i/1, 273, 463; ii. 28, 190–5, 220; iii. 267–70, 272–3, and Romeinsche bronnen, 229–33, 554–5.

55 This is published in ‘Stukken betreffende Nederlandsche kerkgeschiedenis van 1556–1580’, ed. G. Brom, Archief voor de Geschiedenis van het Aartsbisdom Utrecht xxii (1895), 415–19; cf. Archivalia in Italië, i/1, 270, and Vermaseren, De katholieke Nederlandse geschiedschrijving, 20–2.

56 Kamen, Henry, The duke of Alba, New Haven 2004, 75–105Google Scholar; Soen, Violet, Geen pardon zonder paus! Studie over de complementariteit van het koninklijk en pauselijk generaal pardon (1570–1574) en over inquisiteur–generaal Michael Baius (1560–1576), Brussels 2007, esp. pp. 243–55Google Scholar.

57 Johannes Rethius to Mercurianus, Cologne, 9 Feb., 4 Mar. 1574, ARSI, Germaniae, 135–I, 115. See also Vermaseren, De katholieke Nederlandse geschiedschrijving, 19–22.

58 ‘Stukken’, 421–2; Correspondance de Philippe II sur les affaires des Pays–Bas, ed. L.–P. Gachard, Brussels 1858, iii. 20–2; Rogier, L. J., Geschiedenis van het katholicisme in Noord–Nederland in de 16de en 17de eeuw, Amsterdam 1964, i. 211Google Scholar.

59 To make matters worse, Rethius was murdered in Cologne in December 1574: Kuckhoff, Die Geschichte, 156.

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61 This analysis resonated with an advice that Lindanus had composed for Philip ii ten years earlier: Beuningen, Wilhelmus Lindanus, 189–90. Compare similar remarks made by Laurentius Metsius, bishop of Den Bosch, in Correspondance de Philippe II, iv. 739–94.

62 ‘Twee geschriften’, 284. This policy had been tested with success by the bishop himself. From 1572 onwards Lindanus had consciously appointed exiles from Holland to ecclesiastical positions in his diocese: Beuningen, Wilhelmus Lindanus, 285–7.

63 This link was also characteristic of Jesuit discourses, with which Lindanus was well familiar: Andriessen, De Jezuïeten, 33–4, 40–1, 51–3.

64 Spiertz, ‘Wilhelmus Lindanus’, 199–210; Janssens, Gustaaf, Brabant in het verweer: loyale oppositie tegen Spanje's bewind in de Nederlanden van Alva tot Farnese, 1567–1578, Kortrijk 1989Google Scholar; Valvekens, E., De Zuid–Nederlandsche Norbertijner abdijen en de opstand tegen Spanje: maart 1576–1585, Leuven 1929, 103–9Google Scholar, 198–201.

65 ‘Twee geschriften’, 285–90.

66 This is summarised by Woltjer, J. J., Tussen vrijheidsstrijd en burgeroorlog: over de Nederlandse opstand, 1555–1580, Amsterdam 1994, 64–88Google Scholar.

67 In Spain Lindanus presented another memorandum of which the content is unknown: Les Archives générales de Simancas et l'histoire de la Belgique, ed. M. van Durme, Brussels 1964–73, iv. 169; Romeinsche bronnen, 260–2; Spiertz, ‘Wilhelmus Lindanus’, 210.

68 This is published in ‘Stukken’, 429–39.

69 Woltjer, Tussen vrijheidsstrijd, 79–88.

70 Parker, Geoffrey, The grand strategy of Philip II, New Haven 1998, 145Google Scholar, 164–70; Elliott, John H., Imperial Spain, 1469–1716, London 2002, 263–6Google Scholar, 269–70.

71 Bor, Oorsprongk, ii. 215.

72 HAK, Jesuiten, A52, fo. 62v; Bor, Oorsprongk, ii. 215.

73 Bossy, John, Giordano Bruno and the embassy affair, London 1991Google Scholar, 5; Parker, The grand strategy, 96–7; J. H. M. Salmon, ‘Catholic resistance theory, ultramontanism, and the royalist response, 1580–1620’, in J. H. Burns and M. Goldie (eds), The Cambridge history of political thought, 1450–1700, Cambridge 1991, 221–3, 236–41.

74 This is published in Annales ecclesiastici quos post Caesarem S. R. E. Card. Baronium, Odoricum Raynaldum ac Iacobum Laderchium, presbyteros Congregationis Oratorii de Urbe ab an. 1572. / ad nostra usque tempora continuat, ed. Augustin Theiner, Rome 1856, iii. 474–5.

75 Bor, Oorsprongk, i. 935.

76 Loos, Cornelis, De tumultuosa Belgarum rebellione sedanda, Luxemburg 1579Google Scholar; cf. Andriessen, De Jezuïeten, 50, and Vermaseren, De katholieke Nederlandse geschiedschrijving, 47–50.

77 Walvis, Ignatius, Beschrijving der stad Gouda, bevattende een verhaal van stads grondlegginge, Gouda 1714, i. 78–81Google Scholar, 287–8. For Cunerus Petri see Vermaseren, De katholieke Nederlandse geschiedschrijving, 44–9.

78 Parker, The Dutch revolt, 208–16.

79 Die autobiographischen Aufzeichnungen Hermann Weinsbergs, entry for 17 Aug. 1585.

80 Foppens, Jean-François, Histoire du Conseil de Flandre, Brussels 1869, 70–1Google Scholar; Marinus, Contrareformatie, 155–6; Prims, Floris, Geschiedenis van Antwerpen: viii: met Spanje (1555–1715): 3e boek: de geestelijke orde, Antwerp 1943, 217, 226, 252–3Google Scholar; Guillaume Weydts, Chronique flamande, 1571–1584, ed. Émile Varenbergh, Ghent 1869, 144–5.

81 Notes regarding the election of magistrates in Ghent, 1584, ARAB, Audiëntie, 809/9.

82 Notes regarding the election of magistrates in Bruges, 1584, ibid. 809/7.

83 List of recommendations from Ferdinand Veranneman, addressed to Jean Richardot, Bruges, 14 Aug. 1584, ibid.

84 Ibid. 809/13. Returning exiles were also (re)installed on lower administrative levels: SAA, list of town secretaries. Available at http://www.felixarchief.be/Unrestricted/Folder.aspx?document_id=09041acf80000ab3&format=pdf.

85 A number of examples are cited in Viaene, ‘Vlaamse vluchtelingen’, 7–22.

86 There are numerous examples in ARAB, Audiëntie, 1806/4; 1807/2; 2855; 2552–3.

87 Andriessen, De Jezuïeten, 113–14; Marnef, Het calvinistisch bewind, 323–30; Marinus, Contrareformatie, 41–3; Vander Haeghen, V., ‘Archives Gantoises’, Messager des Sciences Historiques (1887), 88–97Google Scholar.

88 van Lerius, Th., Kronyk van de sodaliteit der getrouwden te Antwerpen (1585–1773), Antwerp 1862Google Scholar, 7. I am grateful to Judith Pollmann for providing me with a copy of this volume.

89 Ibid. 7–8.

90 Marinus, Contrareformatie, 255–8.

91 Porteman, Karel, ‘Na 350 jaar: de “sermoonen” van Franciscus Costerus’, Ons Geestelijk Erf xliii (1969), 209–69Google Scholar; Viaene, ‘Vlaamse vluchtelingen’, 14–16, 29–37; cf. Arblaster, Antwerp and the world.

92 Marinus, Contrareformatie, 158–62.

93 Compare the assessment by Philip L. Kintner, ‘Refugees’, in Hans J. Hillerbrand (ed.), The Oxford encyclopedia of the Reformation, Oxford 1996, available at http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t172.e1174.

94 Benedict, Philip, Christ's Churches purely reformed: a social history of Calvinism, New Haven 2002, esp. pp. 70–1, 179–80Google Scholar; Duke, ‘Perspectives’, 5–6; Oberman, Heiko, ‘Europa afflicta: the reformation of the refugees’, Archiv für Reformationsgeschichte lxxxiii (1992), 91–111Google Scholar.