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The International Protestant Community in the Second World War

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  25 March 2011

Peter W. Ludlow
Peter W. Ludlow
Affiliation:
Associate Professor of History, European University Institute, Florence
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Extract

The title requires some explanation. There is no satisfactory generic term to cover the institutions and groups discussed in this paper. I have opted for ‘International Protestant Community’, because it he seems on the whole less unsatisfactory than the term ‘ecumenical movement’, which in contemporary parlance at least must include within its scope Catholics as well as non-Catholics. Even the narrower term has its defects, however, since many of the Anglicans who played prominent roles within these international organisations would have considered themselves more Catholic than Protestant, while the Orthodox who figured in at least some of them would not have considered themselves Protestant at all. But in the period reviewed here the dominant influences within this international community were undoubtedly Protestant and the description, International Protestant Community, though inadequate, is probably the least inadequate available.

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Articles
Information
The Journal of Ecclesiastical History , Volume 29 , Issue 3 , July 1978 , pp. 311 - 362
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1978

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References

1 This paper was originally written for a Colloque, organised by the ‘Commission Internationale d'Histoire Ecclésiastique Comparée’, at Parma in Italy in September 1973. The organisers planned a Conference volume, but after many trials and tribulations, involving discussions in several European countries, this plan has now been abandoned for financial reasons. Given the elapse of time between the Conference and now, it is inevitable that some of the literature cited in the original text as forthcoming has in fact appeared, and that there have been certain contributions which were not even known in 1973 as forthcoming. I trust that I have made all the minor changes in the text and footnotes necessary to draw attention to these developments. I have, however, eschewed more fundamental revision, partly because I am not persuaded that the text requires it—which is not to say that I would not make certain points differently if I were starting it now—but partly, too, because to have produced a new version would almost certainly have entailed expanding an already over-long article.

2 Rouse, Ruth and Neill, S. C., A History of the Ecumenical Movement, 2nd ed.London 1967, 535 ffGoogle Scholar.

3 Ibid., 509 ff.

4 Cf. Keller, A., ‘Die europ. Zentralstelle für Kirchliche Hilfsaktionen’, in Die Eiche, Leipzig 1933, 28–40Google Scholar.

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7 Rouse, Ruth, The World Student Christian Federation, London 1948Google Scholar; Dietrich, S. de, Cinquante Ans d'Histoire, Paris 1948Google Scholar; Shedd, C. P., Two Centuries of Student Christian Movements, New York 1934Google Scholar.

8 Shedd, C. P., A History of the World's Alliance of YMCA's, London 1955Google Scholar; Rice, A. V., A History of the World's Young Women's Christian Association, New York 1947Google Scholar.

9 Grundmann, S., Der Lutherische Weltbund, Cologne 1957Google Scholar; also Malmeström, E., Världs Lutherdomen finner sin form, Stockholm 1967Google Scholar.

10 Cf. Rouse and Neill, op. cit., 613 ff.

11 Cavert, S. M., The American Church in the Ecumenical Movement, 1910–68, New York 1968Google Scholar.

12 No adequate history of the Kirchliches Aussenamt has been written yet. We are, therefore, dependent on the KAA's own archives, which are very large indeed.

13 The Council's papers are not yet available to historians, but copies of many of mem can be found in the Bell papers and in Lord Dickinson's papers in the Oekumenisches Archiv at Soest, Westfalen.

14 Cf. Ludlow, P. W., ‘The Refugee Problem in the 1930's’, English Historical Review, xc (1975). 564–603CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

15 Cf. e.g. Inter Church Aid and Refugees, in World Council of Churches, Library, Geneva; B2, Minutes of ECCO (Geneva); also Hjälp Krigets Offer, in archives of the Swedish YMCA, Stockholm, passim. HKO was a Swedish equivalent of ECCO, founded in the autumn of 1939.

16 Cf. esp. World Council of Churches: World Council of Churches in Process of Formation: Box vii; Life and Work, Study, Boxes 41, 45 and 49, (incl. minutes of special conference in Geneva in July 1939); Paton papers; Church Situation in Germany, 1938/40 and bishop Berggrav's Peace Action etc.: Berggrav papers, Oslo: files on Peace Action. Bell papers, Lambeth Palace Library, Box 24 and Box entitled ‘Churches in Czechoslovakia, etc.’. Numbered boxes in the Bell collection belong to the special, German series. Files with special titles are (were) catalogued separately.

17 For discussion and literature cf. Senghaas-Knobloch, E., Frieden durch Integration und Assoziation, Stuttgart 1969, 59 ffGoogle Scholar. For an interesting case study, cf. Holtenberg, G., ‘British Germanophiles, 1870–1914’, B.Litt. Thesis, Oxford 1970Google Scholar, esp. 129 ff.

18 Cf. e.g., Wilson, Bryan, Religion in a Secular Society, London 1966Google Scholar.

19 For the American role, cf. especially Cavert, op. cit., and Church Cooperation and Unity in America, New York 1970Google Scholar.

20 Siegmund-Schultze, Visser't Hooft, Koechlin, Henriod and many others were prominent in more than one organisation. The most conspicuous example of this pluralist tendency was, however, Nathan Söderblom; cf. n. 34 below.

21 Rouse and Neill, op. cit., 568 ff. For developments in the U.S.A. cf. esp. Meyer, D., The Protestant Search for Political Realism, University of California, 1960Google Scholar. A list of key books prepared by J. H. Oldham for The Christian News Letter, No. 11 (1939) indicates just how far British thinking had moved. The ‘top seven’ authors were: John Baillie, Christopher Dawson, V. A. Demant, C. H. Dodd, T. S. Eliot, Jacques Maritain and Reinhold Niebuhr.

22 KAA, CI Ia xix contains a useful selection of newspaper cuttings.

23 For the Godesberg Erklärung cf. esp. Boyens, A., Kirchenkampf und Okumene, Munich 1969Google Scholar. The debilitating effects of the German Church Struggle were also felt in peace work, (cf. above, n. 15) and elsewhere.

24 Riksarkivet, Stockholm: Landkommittee, Protokoll, 7 December 1939. Memo by Adolf Keller re. a ‘Second Bethesda': ”Der heutige Gegensatz zwischen Ökumenismus und Konfessionsalismus wirkt sich auf dem Gebiete des Hilfswerke, andauernd weiter aus’.

25 Cf. above, n. 15.

26 Svenska Israelsmission: Annual Bulletins; also Svenska Israelsmissionen go År., Stockholm 1965Google Scholar; and Ludlow, ‘Refugee Problem’, op. cit., passim.

27 Cf. esp. Grüber, H., Erinnerungen aus sieben Jahrzehnten, Cologne 1968Google Scholar.

28 Rouse and Neill, op. cit.

29 WCC, box entitled, ‘Ecumenical History, Keller correspondence’: Neill to Keller, 15 May 1952.

30 It was pointed out to me during the Conference that the term ‘neo-Calvinist’ is already used by Dutch church historians to refer to a group that emerged within the Reformed Community in the last century. Attempts to find a satisfactory alternative were not however very fruitful, either at the Conference itself o r subsequently. The only serious possibility seemed to be to describe these people as ‘Barthians’, but although all, or almost all of those concerned, were indeed greatly influenced by Karl Barth, any suggestion that men of the stature of Visser ‘t Hooft, Martin Niemoller, Dietrich Bonhoeffer or Alphons Koechlin were uncritical disciples of the Basel theologian would be highly misleading. I have, therefore, reverted to my original idea and described them all, including Barth, as neo-Calvinists. Even this is not an absolutely trouble-free term, but it is probably the best generic description of a group who were, as this paper I hope shows, a distinct element in the politics of the international community. Purists will, one trusts, recognise the subtle difference between nineteenth century neo-Calvinisten and twentieth century neo-Calvinists. The latter, after all, lived, and still live, in a world in which English is the dominant language.

31 Bell, ‘Churche s in Czechoslovakia etc.’: Koechlin to Bell, 27 April 1940.

32 E.g. Scholder, K., ‘Die Bedeutung des Banner Bekenntnisses für the Ev. Kirche und Theologie’, in Ev. Theologie, 1967, 435 ffGoogle Scholar.

32 Bethge, E., Dietrich Bonhoeffer, Munich 1967Google Scholar. The biography was however preceded by voluminous publications of and about Bonhoeffer's work.

34 A. Boyens, op. cit. Dr. Boyens's second book: Kirchenkampf und Okumene 19J9–1945, Munich 1973Google Scholar, was not available to me when I wrote this paper.

33 When the Conference was planned, it was envisaged that Professor Klaus Scholder of Tübingen would read a paper on German Protestantism during the Second World War. He was, in fact, unable to do so, but rather than add to an already over-long paper a new section on the German Churches, I have left the balance of my contribution unchanged. Since 1973 our knowledge of some very important aspects ot German Church history in this period has been increased by the publication of Richard Gutteridge's study, Open Thy Mouth for the Dumb: the German Evangelical Church and the Jews, 1879–1950, Oxford 1976Google Scholar.

36 At the leadership level, there was considerable interchange of ideas and visits and Christianity and Crisis, Niebuhr's journal, was in some measure at least modelled on Christian News Letter. Reinhold Niebuhr himself could well be described as die tutor to a whole generation of British and American ecumenical leaders. For examples of transatlantic discussion, cf. Paton papers, passim.

37 Cf. esp. Cavert and Meyer, opera cit., also the extensive periodical literature: Christian News Letter, Christianity and Crisis, Theology, Federal Council Bulletin, etc.

38 Sundkler, B., Nathan Söderblom, London and Uppsala, 1968Google Scholar.

39 Main sources, Eidern Arkiv, Landarkivet, Uppsala and Biskopsmöten, protocolls, etc. in the archbishop's residence, Uppsala.

40 The joke ran as follows: ‘There were three names on the short list, weren't there?’. ‘Yes, there were Professors Westman and Andrae, but the King did not take them’. The last phrase in the Swedish original reads, ‘men kungen tog ej dem. Translated literally this reads, ‘but the King took not them’. If the last words are joined, they of course make Eidem's name. I am indebted to Professor Sundkler for this, as for so much else.

41 Eidem, E., Herdebrev, Stockholm 1932Google Scholar.

42 Ibid., 88; cf. also Eidem Arkiv BI a 36: letter to Berggrav, 18 August 1938.

43 Soest, D.v. c. Protocoll of German W.A., 15 January 1932.

44 Cf. Marturinne, E., Erzbischof Eidem turn deutschen Kirchenkampf, Helsinki 1968Google Scholar. Dr. Marturinne's most recent book on the Scandinavian Churches and the Church-Struggle has not at the time of writing appeared in any language but Finnish and is, therefore, inaccessible to me.

45 Correspondence in Eidem Arkiv, BI b series. Eidem was die guest of both of them during a holiday in England in 1935.

46 Eidem Arkiv, BI a 72: Eide m to Sven Hedin, 31 March 1943.

47 Eidem attended the World Lutheran meeting in Paris in 1935, and was an active supporter of Lutheran institutions like Sonderhausen and Landkommitteen.

48 Svenska Ekumeniska Nämden, University Library, Uppsala, 537 d. contains several documents on this affair.

49 Sources: Sv.Ek.N. 537 d. (Protokolls), 537 f.; Accounts of relief committee from January 1937 onwards. Figure for 1936 based on hints in above and also W.A.D. 212.15. Report to International Christian Committee 15 February 1937, 4.

50 Kyrkor under Korset, Lund 1937–40.

51 The Berggrav papers contain interesting correspondence with Arvid Runestam and Ronald Fangen re. the Swedes and Oxford.

52 Cf. Marturinne, op. cit., passim.

53 For Swedish ‘peace initiatives’ cf. Eidem Arkiv., BI b 6. Also, The Nordic Ecumenical Institute, Sigtuna: Fragments of Bishop Björquist's diary.

54 Bell, Box 3: Report by J. V. Wilson to League of Nations Secretariat, 2 September 1937.

55 E.g., Bell, Box 1: Ammundsen to Bell, 23 July 1934.

56 Cf. P. W. Ludlow, ‘Refugee Problem’, op. cit.

57 Eidem Arkiv., BI a 42: Berggrav to Eidem?, 22 February 1939.

58 E.g., Sv.Ek.N. 537 d.: Protokoll 30 April 1939.

59 Ludlow, P. W., ‘Scandinavia between the Great Powers’, Historisk Tidskrift, Stockholm, 1974, 1–58Google Scholar.

60 Cf. esp. Berggrav's letter to Eidem and other Primates, 13 September 1939.

61 The accidental element in Berggrav's association with the World Alliance comes out clearly in his correspondence in 1938.

62 Paton Papers: Church Situation in Germany, 1938/40: report on a visit to Copenhagen, 18–22 October 1939.

63 For the background to Noack's promemoria, etc., cf. P. W. Ludlow, ‘Scandinavia between the Great Powers’, op. cit.

64 Cf. Berggrav, letter to his wife, 13 December 1939 (from House of Lords). Bell's ambivalence about the central issues of the war in 1939/40 is clear from his papers, particularly in correspondence with Oliver Quick, Karl Barth, Alphons Koechlin and Basil Liddell Hart.

65 Berggrav, E., Forgjeves for Fred, Oslo 1960Google Scholar; Boegner, M., L'Exigence Oecumenique, Paris 1968Google Scholar; Hooft, W. A. Visser't, Memoires, Amsterdam 1971Google Scholar.

66 Boegner's and Visser't Hooft's notes are in WCC, ‘Berggrav Peace Action and Zilven’. Berggrav's observations can be found in letters to his wife and friends and in his diary.

67 The individual who behaved most hysterically in the aftermath was Boegner. He reported on Berggrav in the most unfavourable terms to the Quai d'Orsay (copy of one report in Auswärtiges Amt (Politisches Archiv) Bonn: A.A. Kult.A. Geh. Verschlusselsachen, Bd. 18). His comments also provoked enquiries in London about Temple, cf. Public Record Office FO 371. C 875/875/62, (1940).

68 Bell, G. (ed.), With God in the Darkness, London 1943Google Scholar; Höye, B. and Ager, T. M., The Fight of the Norwegian Church against Nazism, New York 1943Google Scholar.

69 Cf. esp. Da Kampen Kom, Oslo 1946Google Scholar; Front-Fangenskap-Flukt, Oslo 1966Google Scholar; Möte med Mennesker, Oslo 1963Google Scholar.

70 Minner fra krigsarene, Oslo 1946Google Scholar.

71 Striden om okkupasjonsstyret i Norge, Oslo 1956Google Scholar.

72 Hjemmestyrkene, Oslo 1959Google Scholar.

73 Quisling, Rosenberg und Terboven, Stuttgart 1970Google Scholar.

74 Hjemmefrontledelsen tar form, Oslo 1970Google Scholar.

75 Nyordning og Motstand, Oslo 1958Google Scholar; Frigjöringspolitikk, Oslo 1963Google Scholar.

76 Undersökelseskommisjonen av 1945, i-iii, Oslo 1946–1949Google Scholar.

77 Touw, H. C., Het Verzet der Hervormde Kerk, ‘s-Gravenhage 1946Google Scholar.

78 Bundesarchiv, Koblenz; Kl. Erw. 298/1–10 for the documents and Günther's own apologia. His story is substantiated in the Archives of the Criminal Police, Oslo Nr. 291/56.

79 And has been. Cf. esp. Wyller, Nyordning, op. cit.

80 Kjeldstadli, op. cit., makes very effective use of SD reports in this connexion.

81 Cf. Loock, op. cit. 383 ff., and 44s ff. etc.

82 Kluge, op. cit., 3.

83 Ibid., 19.

84 Regjeringen og Hjemmefronten, op. cit., 5 ff.

85 Cf. Wyller, Nyordning, op. cit., 124 ff. For Himmler, cf. Berggrav, Front-Fangenskap, etc., 87.

86 Both the Swedish consular staff and pastor Weebe interpreted the crisis of 1942 in terms of a Quisling—Berggrav confrontation. For the meeting between the two men, cf. Berggrav, Front-Fangenskap, 30 ff.

87 There are some extremely interesting legal documents prepared by Schjelderup at Berggrav's request amongst the Berggrav papers. For more re. Schjelderup, cf. his Fra Norges Kamp for retten, Oslo 1945Google Scholar. For Seip, cf. his memoirs: Hjemme og i fiendeland, 1940–5, Oslo 1946Google Scholar.

88 Cf. Molland, E., Fra Hans Nielsen Hauge til Eivind Berggrav, Oslo 1968Google Scholar.

89 E. Berggrav, Forgjeves for Fred, 11 ff. and 161 ff.

90 Summaries of public comment on this in: Günther, op. cit. iii. 76 ff. and iv. 69 ff. Also Eidem Arkiv. BI a 55: Weebe to Eidem 23 November 1940.

91 Cf. esp. International Missionary Council (Geneva) Box 330: docs re. a conference in Paris, April 1934.

92 Eg. Berggrav, Da Kampen Kom, 91 ff.

93 Ibid., 78 ff. Cf. also correspondence in Eidem papers re. this, esp. B Ia 56.

94 For this cf. Da Kampen Kom, loc. cit., and A. Fjellbu, op. cit.

95 Berggrav, E., Der Staat und der Mensch, Stockholm 1946, 365 ffGoogle Scholar.

96 Austad, T., Kirkens Grunn, Oslo 1976Google Scholar.

97 Berggrav papers: unpublished report by Berggrav, ‘Da Kirkens Grunn ble til’, 14.

98 ‘Teologiske Randbemerkinger til Kirkekampen’, in Norsk teologisk Tidsskrift, Oslo 1946, 129 ffGoogle Scholar.

99 Cf. Christie, op. cit., 265 fF.

100 Translated in Höye and Ager, op. cit., 161.

101 Regjeringen of Hjemmefronten, op. cit., 10/11.

102 Cf. in addition to sources already cited: Uppsala University Library, Brillioth papers.

103 Cf. esp. Eidem Arkiv, BI a 49, 56, 63.

104 In September 1940: details in Eidem Arkiv., BI a 49.

105 Eidem, BI a 55, 56, 62, 69, 74, 81, 90.

106 Eidem, BI a 69: Eidem to Westring, 23 February 1942.

107 E.g. ibid., BI a 64: correspondence with S. Palm and J. Nilsson in March and September 1942 re. Göteborg Stiftstidning.

108 Ibid., BI a 69: Eidem to S. Söderblom, 27 February 1942.

109 Ibid., BI a 75: Eidem to Berggrav, 25 October 1944.

110 Cf. e.g. re. extermination of the Jews, BI a 67: to Söderblom. 4 December 1942, or BI a 72: to Forell, 18January 1943.

111 Correspondence with Temple in BI b 19 and with Lundborgof Sv.UD in BI a 81.

112 BI a 63: Eidem to Aulen, 28 February 1942.

113 For Government and Press in wartime Sweden, cf. Thulstrup, A.. Med lock och pock, Stockholm 1962Google Scholar.

114 E.g. BI a 70: Aulen to Eidem, 12 April 1943.

115 Cf. Kyrkor under Korset, Arg. I, 1932Google Scholar.

116 BI a 74: Eidem to Wollmer, 6 February 1943.

117 Kyrkor under Korset, (Lund), Arg. 11, 1942, 262Google Scholar.

118 Cf. e.g. the very warm comments on Heckel in Eidem, BI a 67: Rohde to Eidem, 24 October 1942 and BI a 69: Wollmer to Eidem, 2 December 1942.

119 On the grounds that it specialised in Eastern Europe. For two apologies for the Landkommittee cf. Nygren, Anders, Sanningen om ‘kyrkonazismen’, Stockholm 1946Google Scholar, and Wollmer, L., Kyrklig hjälpverksamhet genom svenska Landskommtteen, Lund 1945Google Scholar.

120 Eidem, BI a 74: Eidem to Wollmer, 4 February 1943.

121 Ibid., BI a 81: Eidem to Wollmer, 7 November 1944.

122 Ibid., BI a 88: Prestekontoret to Rohde(copy), 12 March 1945.

123 Ibid., Eidem to Rohde, 27 January 1945.

124 Cf. Malmeström, op. cit., 141.

125 Cf. esp. Eidem, BI a 64 and 70.

126 Nystedt, one of the Sigtuna group, was in touch with Berggrav throughout the pre-1942 period and even beyond: cf. Eidem, BI a 67.

127 Kristen-Gemenskap, Sigtuna, May 1942 ff.

128 Cf. HKO archives, passim.

129 Cf. Ditleff, N. Chr., Da Tysklands Fangene ble reddet, Oslo 1955Google Scholar; also, Yahil, Lena, ‘Scandinavian Countries to the Rescue’, Yad Vashem Studies, vi (1967), 181 ffGoogle Scholar.

130 For Schönfeld's role, cf. Sigtuna, Utlandsk Korrespondens, 1940/41: S. to Johansson, 13 October 1941; also, Soest, Nachlass 11 23/6 Memo: ‘Christliche Linien in der Wieder auf bauarbeit’, May 1942.

131 Cf. Anderson, Ivar, Fran det Nära Förflutna, Stockholm 1968, 90 ffGoogle Scholar. Anderson's diary in Kungl. Biblioteket, Stockholm is an invaluable source.

132 Anderson Diary, 13 January 1943 for an evening with Sorensen. Andresen also linked up with this group and Fru Fanny Carlgren saw Trott during his Swedish visits. Cf. article by Lindgren, H. III, Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, Munich 1971Google Scholar.

133 Jasper, R. C. D., George Bell, London 1967, 267 ffGoogle Scholar.

134 Most of the documents in question are in Sigtuna, Documents section. For the fate of one particular set of reports drafted by Schönferd in March 1943 (Docs. H 26/28/43). Cf. esp. PRO, F.O. 371, C. 2416/3880/5014/155/18(1943).

135 Cf. e.g. the favourable comment in Dagens Nyheter, Stockholm, 7 August 1942Google Scholar.

136 Sigtuna, Utl. Korresp.: Johansson to Ehrenström, 14 May 1943.

137 Cf. Eidem Arkiv., BI a 79: E. Perwe to Eidem, 12 January 1944.

138 Sigtuna, Sv. Korrespondens, 1945, A-K, esp. Johansson to Eidem, 15 January 1945-The documents are in Sigtuna Docs. 1/45 S.

139 Ibid., esp. Johansson to Eidem 6 August 1945.

140 Sv. Ek. N. 537 g, for minutes of this committee. First met April 1944.

141 Until scandal enveloped it too—cf. Malmeström, op. cit., 58 f. The scandal was of a personal kind, however.

142 PRO, Ministry of Inf. 1/774: Herbert Waddams, Report of journey to Sweden, 13 November 1944.

148 Bell, Box 6: Oldham to Bell, 13 October 1934.

144 Soest, H. ii d.i contains an almost complete set of minutes of the Zürich committee, with information re. finances.

145 For the reunification, cf. Boegner, op. cit., 75 ff.

146 Roon, G. van, Protestants Nederland en Duitsland, 1933–41, Utrecht/Antwerp, 1973Google Scholar.

147 Kaiser, M. U., Deutsche Kirchenkampf in der schw. Öffentlichheit 1933–34, Zürich, 1972Google Scholar.

148 Bell, Box 1: Monod to Bell, 8 August 1934.

149 Cf. e.g. WCC. Gen. Sec. Koechlin-Visser ‘t Hooft correspondence of 1943 and 1944. Also box entitled ‘Ecumenical History: Keller correspondence’.

150 Cf. Visser't Hooft, Memoires, op. cit., 38 ff.

151 For Boegner's background, cf. Boegner, op. cit., chs. 1–3.

152 For Koechlin, cf. esp. Lindt, Andreas, George Bell-Alphons Koechlin, Briefwechsel, 1933–54, Zürich 1969, 17 ffGoogle Scholar.

155 For comment on the ‘Continental breakthrough’ in the WSCF, cf. WSCF (WCC Library), Box 208: Visser't Hooft to Lilje, 17 January 1933.

154 Papers re. this in KAA CI la Bd. x and xi.

155 WSCF Box 256, Minutes of CIM, 21 October 1938.

156 For the latter, cf. Touw, op. cit., i, 39.

157 For an account of the Oxford Movement in Holland, cf. Ramm, Fr., Oslo Statenes Imperialisme, Oslo 1937Google Scholar.

158 For the latter cf. Jong, L. de, Het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden in de Tweede Wereldoorlog, 'S Gravenhage, 1972, iv. 770 fGoogle Scholar.

159 WCC. Gen. Secretariat: Koechlin-Visser ‘t Hooft correspondence from 1938 on shows their increasing importance. They were responsible, inter alia, for the initiative that launched a new, WCC linked refugee committee in 1939 and it was Koechlin who proposed Freudenberg for the secretaryship.

160 WSCF Box 256, Minutes of CIM etc. show that the problem of relations with the mainstream of church life was a perennial one. I am indebted to Dr. Visser ‘t Hooft for drawing my attention to the importance of the less formal, but very cohesive groups of ‘graduates’.

161 Cf. e.g. Soest, H II d.i: Exchange between Vogt and Frl. Nelly, April 1939.

162 The best source for these is the Schweizerische Evangelische Pressedienst, Zürich. WCC Gen. Sec. Brunner correspondence: Visser ‘t Hooft to Brunner, 24 December 1941 shows that Barth's tactics caused the former some disquiet.

163 Boas, J. H., Resistance of the Churches in the Netherlands, New York 1944Google Scholar; Hooft, W. A. Visser ‘t, The Struggle of the Dutch Church, London 1944Google Scholar.

164 The catalogue of the Rijksinstituut voor Oorlogsdocumentatie, Amsterdam, is probably the best guide to the published literature. The Institute also has some primary materials, including Professor Rutgers's correspondence as secretary of the Protestant Refugee Committee from 1936–400.

165 Presser, J., Ashes in the Wind, London 1968Google Scholar.

166 Warmbrunn, W., The Dutch under German Occupation, California 1963Google Scholar.

167 L. de Jong, op. cit. Seven volumes have so far appeared. Also, De Bezetting, Amsterdam 1965Google Scholar.

168 Cf. Ford, H., Flee the Captor, Nashville 1966Google Scholar.

169 Discussion of Scholten in both works of De Jong, above.

170 Cf. e.g. Leeuwen, A. M. Van, Hendrik Kraemer, Basel 1962Google Scholar.

171 Dr. V. ‘t Hooft has drawn attention to the importance of the Ecumenical Press Service as a source of information for the illegal Press.

172 Cf. Touw, op. cit., i. 44 ff.

173 Ibid., i. 44ff.

174 Ibid., 141 ff.

175 Cf. Berggrav, Front-Fangenskap, 16–17.

176 For Schonfeld in Holland cf. esp. the correspondence with Ehrenstrom in Sigtuna, Utl. Korrespondens. There is also material of more dubious value in KAA and AA.

177 Touw, op. cit., i. 158 ff.

178 Visser't Hooft, Memoires, 123 ff.

179 Cf. above, n. 171.

180 E.g. Barth, Karl, Eine Schweiier Stimme, 1938–45, Zurich 1945Google Scholar.

181 The WCC Study Department files contain several contributions from the van Asbeck-Scholten group; cf. Touw, Bd. i. 155 ff.

182 E.g. Michel, H., Lei mouvements dandestiru en Europe, Paris 1965Google Scholar.

183 Lei Eglises Protestantes pendant la guerre et I'occupation, Paris 1946Google Scholar; Les Clandestine de Dieu, La Cimade, Paris 1968Google Scholar.

184 Cf. esp. Boegner, op. cit.

185 E.g. WCC in Process of Formation, Box vi: Reports by Visser ‘t Hooft on European Churches.

186 For Boegner's own explanation, cf. Boegner, op. cit., 140.

187 There is no very good, comprehensive account, but cf. Levin, N., The Holocaust, New York 1968Google Scholar.

188 YMCA (Geneva). Correspondence with Lowrie: Lowrie to D. A. Davis, is August 1940. For Lowrie in general cf. Lowrie, D., The Hunted Children, New York 1963Google Scholar.

189 HKO, Krigfangearbetet etc.: Report by Lowrie of 7 November 1940.

190 Cf. esp. Lowrie, op. cit., 82 ff.

191 WSCF, Box 256: CIMADE, 25 January 1941; cf. also YMCA, Lowrie: D. Davis to Lowrie, ‘from what Pastor Toureille says you have a unique standing with the French government as well as with the organisations you are serving’.

192 HKO, Paketformedlingen: Freudenberg to Cedergren, 6 February 1942.

193 Cf. ICAR, B 2: Report of Ecum. Committee, January 1942, 10 ff. The best source of all on T. however is the very bulky correspondence with him in WCC. Gen. Sec.

194 WSCF, Box 256. CIM minutes 18 August 1940 and foil. For this stage of CIMADE history, HKO is arguably the best source.

195 WSCF, Box 256; CIMADE, Minutes, 14 March 1942; also HKO, Paketformed-lingen: Freudenberg to Cedergren, 6 March 1948.

196 Eidem Arkiv., BI a 64. Cedegren: a copy of a report by Lowrie dated 10 August 1942.

197 Cf. esp. Lowrie, op. cit., 218 ff.

198 Boegner, op. cit., 152 and 348 ff.

199 Foreign Relations of the United States, 1942, ii. 710 ff.

200 Cf. esp. the works by Ludwig and Hasler cited below nn. 208, 209.

201 Cf. Bell, Box 31: correspondence with Eleanor Rathbone; also Box 35, and PRO Cabinet meetings, 126, 130, 131 of 1942 for government discussion.

202 Lowrie (op. cit.) shows the importance of the United States.

203 FRUS, 1942, i and ii.

204 YMCA, x 391.2 (44) ‘Activites du comite universel du YMCA en Zone Sud de Nov. 1942 a Nov. 1943’ contains a most vivid account of conditions.

205 For the Jews themselves cf. Ariel, J., ‘Jewish Self-Defence and Resistance in France during World War II’, Yad Vashem Studies, Jerusalem 1967, 231Google Scholar ff. For the Catholics, cf. Duquesne, J., lei Catholiques Francais sous I'Occupation, Paris 1966Google Scholar.

206 Bonjour, E., Geschichte der Schweizerischer Neutralitat, Basel 1970Google Scholar ff., iv–vi.

207 Meyer, A., Anpassungoder Widerstand, Frauenfeld 1965Google Scholar.

208 Ludwig, C., Die Fliichtlingspolitik der Schweiz in denjahren 1933 bis 1955, Bern 1958Google Scholar.

209 Hasler, A. A., Das Boot ist voll, Zurich 1967Google Scholar.

210 Cf. esp. K. Barth, Eine Schweizer Stimme.

211 Schmidt, Jiirgen, Martin Niemoller im Kirchenkampf, Hamburg 1971Google Scholar.

212 Cf. now Busch, E., Karl Barth, Munich 1975Google Scholar. For all its very considerable qualities, however, this biography cannot be described as a detached study.

213 The work of Barth's rival, Emil Brunner, was, however, more extensively translated into English prior to 1950.

214 Bell, Box WCC, Correspondence A-B: Barth to Bell 8 December 1939, cf. a further letter of 28 January 1940: ‘Realise: there is a snake biting his own tail: Hitler rules because German y is following him and Germany follows Hitler because he is ruling’.

215 Landeskirchliches Archiv. Stuttgart, Wurm Papers, Bd. 177 contains a paper by a former ‘Dahlemite’, Jacobi, G., entitled: ‘Die BK heute’, 1 February 1942Google Scholar. Its basic argument, tha t times, and therefore needs, had changed, would have bee n anathema to Barth.

216 Ibid., Bd. 147: Report by W. Pressel on Lutherrat meeting in Berlin, 1 June 1943.

217 Ibid., Bd. 208: Wurm to Pfarrkonvent, 4 September 1945, contains pained comments on Barth and his friends. For further details of Swiss attacks on Wurm and his colleagues in the post-war Church, cf. ibid., Bd. 231: various from Wurm to Koechlin, esp. 4 December 1946.

218 Ct. e.g. IMC 330: Paris talks, April 1934.

219 A paper by SchSnfeld—a close associate of Brunner—in Sigtuna, Docs. H 31/43, entitled ‘Zusammensetzungen und Verbindungen der schw. Gruppe’, casts light on the ‘alternative Ökumene’ that emerged around Brunner and the Gothard Bund in this period. Keller's struggle with Koechlin and Visser ‘t Hooft over the proposed Reconstruction Department produced another significant set of alignments, different bu t related to the above. (For this cf. material esp. in Eidem Arkiv—correspondence with Keller—and the Schönfeld papers.)

220 Cf. above all, WCC, Gen. Sec. Koechlin-Visser ‘t Hooft correspondence.

221 Ludwig, op. cit., 215.

222 Beogner, op. cit., 156–7.

223 Ludwig, op. cit., 225 ff.

224 E.g. ICAR. Correspondence—1944, exchanges between Freudenberg and Bertha Hohemuth, 1942/43.

225 The best source for the working of the system is ICAR: correspondence between Freundenberg and two of his associates, pastor Schloss of Berne and Henriod, secretary to the Geneva Committee. There are also several lists in this collection.

226 Cf. esp. Soest., H II c.7, d. 1 and 2.

227 Details of organisational improvements in Minutes of Swiss Central Committee, Soest. H. II d.i. Also Hasler, op. cit., 297 ff. for evidence of the dramatic change in atmosphere.

228 ICAR, B2: ‘Report on Ecumenical Refugee work since 1939’, contains financial details which illustrate just how much the ecumenical work in France depended on Swiss help. Koechlin was largely responsible for ensuring that the bulk of Swiss Protestant giving went via Freudenberg, cf. ICAR, correspondence between K and Freudenberg, early 1941.

229 Vogt's work is fully discussed—on the basis of his papers—in Häsler, op. cit. The same book also praises Frau Kurz, cf. 137 f. For Henriod cf. ICAR correspondence. Gerhard Riegner of the World Jewish Congress spoke highly of Henriod in conversation with me.

230ICAR, B2 contains a full set of minutes.

231 WCC Gen. Secretariat. Boxes of correspondence with London Office and New York Office contain details from midsummer 1940 esp.

232 Soest, H II d. 1: Minutes of Swiss Committee, 18 April 1939 gives a good example of their activities, as both were present. For more, cf. Grüber, Erinnerungen, op. cit., and Hedenquist correspondence in SIM.

233 WCC Gen. Secretariat: Visser ‘t Hooft to Gruber, 21 September 1939.

234 Cf. esp. the pathetic correspondence between Geneva and the U.S.A. in 1939–41. WCC Gen. Sec. Hoffman correspondence.

235 Soest, H II d 1: Freudenberg to Siegmund-Schultze, 7 October 1939.

236 International Military Tribunal, Nuremberg: Case II (v. Weizsacker et al.) Defence Docs: evidence of Schonfeld et al. Complete set of documents available at the Wiener Library, London.

237 WCC Gen Sec. Toureille: notes by Freudenberg for a forthcoming conversation with T. 13 February 1941.

238 ICAR, correspondence with McClelland, September 1941 ft.; also WCC Gen. Sec. correspondence with George Bernouilli and pastor Dahlgrün.

239 ICAR, correspondence: Freudenberg to Koechlin, 27 September 1942.

240 Ibid.: Freudenberg to Henriod, 26 January 1943.

241 International Red Cross, Geneva, G.59/7.

242 ICAR, B2. Amongst the minutes of ECCO is a memo from ECCO Geneva to ECCO New York, 17 November 1943. Cf. also the travels of Hugo Cedegren, who apart from visiting Switzerland regularly was able, as a Swede married to a member of the Swedish Royal House, to travel unimpeded through both German and Allied-held territories.

243 WCC Gen. Sec. London Office correspondence; also WCC in Process of Formation, Box vi: Reports on European Churches.

244 For Visser ‘t Hooft's abortive attempts to interest the American and British governments, cf. Memoires, 139 ff. For the April episode, cf. also, PRO FO 371 C 5099/48/18 (1942) and 5428.

245 Visser't Hooft, Memoires, 125 ff.

246 ICAR, B2. ECCO minutes of meetings of 22 and 30 Jun e 1942.

247 Cf. esp. WCC in Process of Formation, Boxes vi ff.

248 WCC in Process of Formation, Box vii.

249 Ibid., Box iii: minutes of Provisional Committee (Geneva), 25/26 September 1942.

250 For chronology in general cf. Morse, A., White Six Million Died, London 1968Google Scholar; ICAR, correspondence: Freudenberg to Koechlin 27 September 1942 makes it clear that Riegner's news was discussed at Provisional Committee.

251 Report entitled: The American Churches and the Churches of Europe. I am grateful to Dr. Cavert for sending me a copy.

252 Cf. WCC Gen Secretariat, New York Office: correspondence between Visser ‘t Hooft and Leiper, 1939/40 re. Christian Century, etc.

253 For a most sensitive critique of moral relativism in British Christian circles in 1939/40 cf. Christian News Letter, Supplement to 10 January 1940: Reinhold Niebuhr, ‘Christianity and Political Justice’.

254 Cf. esp. Chadwin, Mark, The Hawks of World War II, Chapel Hill 1968Google Scholar.

255 Minutes and correspondence of the Peace Aims Group in Paton papers (two boxes).

256 Dulles was chairman and spiritus rector of the Federal Council's Commission for a Just and Durable Peace.

257 Cf. Jasper, op. cit., esp. 256 ff.

258 M. of Inf. 1/789 has material on this.

259 Temple to Dorothy Buxton, 9 July 1943. (Letter in my possession.)

260 Martin, Hugh, Christian Counter Attack, London 1944Google Scholar.

261 Cf. Boas, Resistance in the Netherlands.

262 E.g. Theology, xliii, 155. (Review by V. H. H. Green.)

263 For Temple, cf. esp. Iremonger, F., William Temple, London 1948Google Scholar.

264 Statistics were published regularly in the Federal Council Bulletin.

265 Cf. HMSO, 1943, Cmd. 6458 § 36–42: ‘White Paper on Educational Reconstruction’.

266 Cf. above, n. 244.

167 PRO FO 371 C 5946/118/18, (1942): Dfaft Plan by R. H. S. Grossman, 12 June 1942. For the problem of Religious Broadcasts in general cf. Briggs, Asa, The War of Words, London 1971, 621Google Scholar ff.

268 For a most interesting discussion of the problem by laymen in the British Foreign Office, cf. PRO FO 371 C 441/154/62 (1941). The whole vol. 26531 contains most valuable material on war and religion.

269 Cf. D. Meyer, op. tit., passim.

270 FO 371 Series C 29/18 (1943) contains material on U.S. opinion.

271 The principal sources for this episode are the papers of The Council of Christians and Jews, World Jewish Congress (London Office). The Board of Deputies, and Bell.

272 For the debate as a whole cf. Hansard, House of Lords, 1942/43, vol. 126, 811–21.

273 The British Council of Churches was founded in 1942.

274 Opera cit.

275 Cf. Iremonger, Temple, 561.

276 Cf. e.g. Stöhr, H., So Half Ameriha, Stettin 1936Google Scholar.

277 World Jewish Congress (London) Minutes of a meeting at Houses of Parliament, 9 March 1943.

278 Holborn, L., The International Refugee Organization, London 1956, 145Google Scholar ff.

279 Bell, Box 7.

280 For an interesting example of caution, cf. WCC Gen.Secretariat: Visser ‘t Hooft to Eric Fenn (of B.B.C), 1 November 1939.

281 Cf. Eidem Arkiv., BI b. 19: correspondence with Temple, 1943.

282 Cf. A. Boyens, ‘Das Stuttgarter Schuldbekenntnis’, Vierteljahrshefte für Zietgeschichte, Jrg. 19. 374 ff.

283 Cf. above n. 21.

284 Also, WCC Gen. Sec: Oldham to Visser ‘t Hooft, 30 December 1943, re. the archbishop's group: ‘the thinking of its members has been largely shaped by non-British thinkers, such as Niebuhr, Maritain and Barth and others’.

285 Early chapters of D. Meyer (op. cit.) sketch in the background well.

286 Ibid.

287 Cf. L. dejong, Koninkrijk, iv. 770.

288 WSCF, Box 256; CIM minutes 21 October 1938: Suzanne de Dietrich.

289 For a classic statement of the neo-Calvinist position, cf. WCC in Process of Formation, vii: Visser ‘t Hooft to Temple, 15 December 1943.

290 Cf. Meiser, H. (ed.), Der Lutherische Weltbund, Lund, 1947; Berichte und Dokumente, Munich 1948Google Scholar.

291 For a stimulating account of the transition from wartime to peacetime politics in Norway, cf. C. Wyller, Frigjörings Politikk.

292 Eidem Arkiv., BI a 88: Eidem to Rohde, 27 January 1945.

293 Cf. an interesting comment on the new Kirchenkampf amongst the papers of the Church of England Council for Foreign Relations (Bell, box 14, paper 416, February 1947): ‘Energies which might be devoted to the all-important task of reclaiming youth are being exhausted in this struggle. One has the impression that the German clergy are too involved in church politics and organisation’.

294 Paton d. 21 August 1943. Templed. 26 October 1944. Oldhamwas already very old, and although he made some sharp and perceptive comments on die new institutions after the war, (cf. esp. WCC Gen. Sec., Oldham papers), he was n o longer active. Bell was strangely remote from Geneva in the post-war period.

295 Cf. esp. Eidem Arkiv., BI b 19 and A. 82: correspondence widi Keller and Schonfeld, 1943 and 1944.

296 WCC Gen. Sec, Oldham correspondence: Oldha m to Visser ‘t Hooft, 7 November 1944.

297 Bell, Churches in Czechoslovakia and WCC various.

298 Ibid., WCC,: Grubb to Bell, 7 June 1949.

299 Cf. e.g. Stuttgart, LKA. Bd. 23a: Asmussen to Wurm et. al. 14 July 1947.

300 World Counci l of Churches in Process of Formation, Minutes of the Provisional Committee, Geneva, 21–23 February 1946, and Minutes of the Provisional Committee Buck Hill Falls, April 1947, 7.

301 For Hilfswerk, cf. esp. Krimm, H., Qiullen ZUT Geschichte der Diakonie, iii, Stuttgart 1967Google Scholar.