Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-8ctnn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-27T11:03:00.851Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Globalization effects: mobilityand nation in Imperial Germany, 1880–1914*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 March 2008

Sebastian Conrad
Sebastian Conrad
Affiliation:
European University Institute, Department of History and Civilization, Via Boccaccio 121, 50133 Florence, Italy E-mail: Sebastian.Conrad@eui.eu
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The trajectories of German nationalism in the late nineteenth century were deeply affected by the process of globalization. While the literature on the subject has largely remained within the confines of a national history paradigm, this article uses the example of mobility and migration to show to what extent German nationalism was transformed under the auspices of global integration. Among the effects of cross-border circulation were the emergence of diasporic nationalism, the racialization of the nation, the implementation of new border regimes, and the hegemony of ideological templates that linked nationalist discourse to global geopolitics. This article is intended as a contribution to a ‘spatial turn’ in the historiography of nationalism, in arguing that not only the ‘nation form’ but also the way that the nation was defined, understood, and practised – the particular contents of nationalism – owed more to the global context in which it was constituted than is usually recognized.

Type
Articles
Information
Journal of Global History , Volume 3 , Issue 1 , March 2008 , pp. 43 - 66
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2008

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Harold, James, Der Rückfall: Die neue Weltwirtschaftskrise, München: Piper, 2005Google Scholar, preface to the German edition. For the notion of ‘deglobalization’, see the complex account in Jürgen, Osterhammel and Niels, Petersson, Globalization:. a short history, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005.Google Scholar

2 Jeffrey, Williamson, ‘Globalization and inequality, past and present’, The World Bank Research Observer, 12, 1997, p. 118Google Scholar. The caesura of 1914 is stressed particularly by economic historians: see O'Rourke, Kevin H. and Williamson, Jeffrey G., Globalization and history: the evolution of a nineteenth-century Atlantic economy, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1999.Google Scholar

3 Stefan, Zweig, Die Welt von Gestern: Erinnerungen eines Europäers, Frankfurt: Fischer, 1970, p. 465.Google Scholar

4 An influential version of this dichotomy can be found in Michael, Hardt and Antonio, Negri, Empire, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001.Google Scholar

5 David, Blackbourn and Geoff, Eley, The peculiarities of German history: bourgeois society and politics in nineteenth-century Germany, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984.Google Scholar

6 For theoretical statements on these issues, see Arjun, Appadurai, Modernity at large: cultural dimensions of globalization, Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1996Google Scholar; Arif, Dirlik, global modernity: modernity in the age of global capitalism, Boulder, CO: Paradigm Publishers, 2007.Google Scholar

7 August, Bebel, Für und wider die Commune: Disputation zwischen den Herren Bebel und Sparig in der ‘Tonhalle’ zu Leipzig, Leipzig: Genossenschaftsbuchdruckerei, 1876.Google Scholar

8 Rupp, Leila J., ‘The making of international women's organizations’, in Geyer, Martin H. and Johannes, Paulmann, eds., The mechanics of internationalism, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001, pp. 205–34.Google Scholar

9 Stefan, Berger, The search for normality: national identity and historical consciousness in Germany since 1800, New York, NY: Berghahn Books, 1997.Google Scholar

10 For an overview on research on German nationalism, see Dieter, Langewiesche, ‘Nation, Nationalismus, Nationalstaat: Forschungsstand und Forschungsperspektiven’, Neue Politische Literatur, 40, 1995, pp. 190–236Google Scholar; Hans-Ulrich Wehler, Nationalismus: Geschichte, Formen, Folgen, München: C. H. Beck, 2001, 62–89.

11 Geoff, Eley, Reshaping the German right: radical nationalism and political change after Bismarck, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1980Google Scholar; Roger, Chickering, We men who feel most German: a cultural study of the Pan-German League, 1886–1914, Boston, MA: Unwin Hyman, 1984.Google Scholar

12 Christian, Geulen, Wahlverwandte: Rassendiskurse und Nationalismus im späten 19. Jahrhundert, Hamburg: Hamburger Edition, 2004, p. 30Google Scholar. See also Paul Weindling, Health, race, and politics in Germany between national unification and Nazism 1870–1945, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989.

13 For the latest statement on the issue, see the synthesis by Peter, Walkenhorst, Nation-Volk-Rasse: Radikaler Nationalismus im Deutschen Kaiserreich 1890–1914, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2007.Google Scholar

14 See in particular Michael Jeismann, Das Vaterland der Feinde: Studien zum nationalen Feindbegriff und Selbstverständnis in Deutschland und Frankreich 1792–1918, Stuttgart: Klett, 1992. See also Nolan, Michael E., The inverted mirror: mythologizing the enemy in France and Germany, 1898–1914, New York, NY: Berghahn, 2005.Google Scholar

15 Apart from the large literature on anti-Semitism, see Peter, Alter, Peter, Berghoff, and Claus-Ekkehard, Bärsch, eds., Die Konstruktion der Nation gegen die Juden, München: Fink, 1999.Google Scholar

16 See Hagen, William W., Germans, Poles, and Jews: the nationality conflict in the Prussian East, 1772–1914, Chicago, IL: Chicago University Press, 1980Google Scholar; Christian, Pletzing, Vom Völkerfrühling zum nationalen Konflikt: Deutscher und polnischer Nationalismus in Ost- und Westpreußen 1830–1871, Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2003.Google Scholar

17 Alexander Honold and Klaus R. Scherpe, eds., Mit Deutschland um die Welt: Eine Kulturgeschichte des Fremden in der Kolonialzeit, Stuttgart: J. B. Metzler, 2004; Birthe Kundrus, ed., Phantasiereiche: Zur Kulturgeschichte des deutschen Kolonialismus, Frankfurt: Campus, 2003.

18 Sebastian, Conrad and Jürgen, Osterhammel, eds., Das Kaiserreich trans-national: Deutschland in der Welt 1871–1914, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2004Google Scholar; Cornelius, Torp, Die Herausforderung der Globalisierung: Wirtschaft und Politik in Deutschland, 1860–1914, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2005.Google Scholar

19 Dirk, Hoerder, Cultures in contact: world migrations in the second millennium, Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2002Google Scholar; Adam, McKeown, ‘Global migration, 1846–1940’, Journal of World History, 15, 2004, pp. 155–90.Google Scholar

20 Zolberg, Aristide R., ‘Global movements, global walls: responses to migration, 1885–1925’, in Gungwu, Wang, ed., global history and migrations, Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1997, pp. 279–307.Google Scholar

21 Klaus Bade, Europa in Bewegung: Migration vom späten 18. Jahrhundert bis zur Gegenwart, München: C. H. Beck, 2000; Dirk, Hoerder and Jörg, Nagel, eds., People in transit: German migrations in comparative perspective, 1820–1930, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995.Google Scholar

22 Ulrich Herbert, Geschichte der Ausländerpolitik in Deutschland: Saisonarbeiter, Zwangsarbeiter, Gastarbeiter, Flüchtlinge, München: C. H. Beck, 2001.

23 Michael, Just, Ost- und Südosteuropäische Amerikawanderung 1881–1914: Transitprobleme in Deutschland und Aufnahme in den Vereinigten Staaten, Stuttgart: Steiner, 1988.Google Scholar

24 See Klaus J. Bade, ed., Deutsche im Ausland – Fremde in Deutschland: Migration in Geschichte und Gegenwart, München: C. H. Beck, 1992. See also Krista, O'Donnell, Renate, Bridenthal, and Nancy, Reagin, eds., The Heimat abroad: the boundaries of Germanness, Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2005.Google Scholar

25 Earlier traditions of nationalism, of course, were likewise bound up with global contexts. See Bayly, C. A., The birth of the modern world 1780–1914: global connections and comparisons, Oxford: Blackwell, 2004, pp. 112–14, 199–245.Google Scholar

26 Naranch, Bradley D., ‘Inventing the Auslandsdeutsche: emigration, colonial fantasy, and German national identity 1848–71’, in Eric, Ames, Marcia, Klotz, and Lora, Wildenthal, eds., Germany's colonial pasts, Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 2005, pp. 21–40.Google Scholar

27 See, for example, Malte, Fuhrmann, Der Traum vom deutschen Orient: Zwei deutsche Kolonien im osmanischen Reich 1851–1914, Frankfurt: Campus, 2006.Google Scholar

28 See Walther, Daniel J., Creating Germans abroad: cultural policies and national identity in Namibia, Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 2006Google Scholar. For East Africa, see Philippa, Söldenwagner, Spaces of negotiation: European settlement and settlers in German East Africa 1900–1914, München: Meidenbauer, 2006.Google Scholar

29 Birthe, Kundrus, Moderne Imperialisten: Das Kaiserreich im Spiegel seiner Kolonien, Köln: Böhlau, 2003, pp. 43–119.Google Scholar

30 See Hehl, R. A., Die Entwicklung der Einwanderungsgesetzgebung in Brasilien, in Schriften des Vereins für Sozialpolitik, vol. 72, Leipzig: Duncker Humblot, 1896Google Scholar; Skidmore, Thomas E., ‘Racial ideas and social policy in Brazil, 1870–1940’, in Richard, Graham, ed., The idea of race in Latin America, 1870–1940, Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 1990, pp. 7–36.Google Scholar

31 On German migration to Brazil, see Gerhard, Brunn, Deutschland und Brasilien 1889–1914, Köln: Böhlau, 1971Google Scholar; Dietrich v. Delhaes-Guenther, Industrialisierung in Südbrasilien: Die deutsche Einwanderung und die Anfänge der Industrialisierung in Rio Grande do Sul, Köln: Böhlau, 1973; Jürgen Hell, Der Griff nach Südbrasilien: Die Politik des Deutschen Reiches zur Umwandlung Südbrasiliens in ein überseeisches Neudeutschland (1890–1914), PhD thesis, University of Rostock, 1966.

32 Karl Leonhardt, ‘Die deutschen Kolonien im Süden von Chile’, Das Auswandererproblem, 5, 1912, pp. 7–53.

33 Georg Adolph, Stolze, Gedanken eines Hinterwäldlers Brasiliens über sociale Verhältnisse, besonders in Bezug auf die deutsche Auswanderung nach Brasilien, Leer: C. Meyer, 1895, p. 5.Google Scholar

34 Wilhelm, Breitenbach, Aus Süd-Brasilien: Erinnerungen und Aufzeichnungen, Brackwede: Breitenbach, 1913, p. 208.Google Scholar

35 Robert, Gernhard, Reise-Bilder aus Brasilien, Breslau: Schottlaender, 1900, p. 100.Google Scholar

36 Wettstein, Karl A., Mit deutschen Kolonistenjungens durch den brasilianischen Urwald! Selbsterlebtes: Eine Reise nach und durch Südbrasilien und seine deutschvölkischen Kolonien, Leipzig: F. Engelmann, 1910, p. 195.Google Scholar

37 On the life reform movement, see Eva, Barlösius, Naturgemäße Lebensführung: Zur Geschichte der Lebensreform um die Jahrhundertwende, Frankfurt: Campus, 1997Google Scholar; Kevin, Repp, Reformers, critics, and the paths of German modernity: anti-politics and the search for alternatives 1890–1914, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000Google Scholar; Geoff Eley and James Retallack, eds., Wilhelminism and its legacies: German modernities, imperialism, and the meanings of reform 1890–1914, New York, NY: Berghahn Books, 2003.

38 Quoted from Joachim Radkau, ‘Die Verheißungen der Morgenfrühe: die Lebensreform in der neuen Moderne’, in Kai Buchholz, ed., Die Lebensreform: Entwürfe zur Neugestaltung von Leben und Kunst um 1900, Darmstadt: Häusser, 2001, pp. 55–60.

39 Hermann Hesse, Kindheit und Jugend vor Neunzehnhundert, vol. 2, Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 1978, pp. 10, 67.

40 Quoted from Karl A. Wettstein, Brasilien und die deutsch-brasilianische Kolonie Blumenau, Leipzig: Friedrich Engelmann, 1907, p. 1.

41 Gernhard, Reise-Bilder, p. 44.

42 See Herbert, Geschichte der Ausländerpolitik, pp. 25–7.

43 Partha, Chatterjee, Nationalist thought and the colonial world: a derivative discourse, Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1993.Google Scholar

44 Jürgen, Zimmerer, Deutsche Herrschaft über Afrikaner: Staatlicher Machtanspruch und Wirklichkeit im kolonialen Namibia, Munich LIT, 2001Google Scholar; Klaus Mühlhahn, Herrschaft und Widerstand in der ‘Musterkolonie’ Kiautschou: Interaktionen zwischen China und Deutschland, 1897–1914, Munich Oldenbourg, 2000.

45 See Jürgen, Zimmerer, ‘Colonialism and the Holocaust: towards an archaeology of genocide’, in Moses, Dirk A., ed., Genocide and settler society: frontier violence and child removal in Australia, New York, NY: Berghahn, 2004, pp. 49–76Google Scholar; Jürgen, Zimmerer and Joachim, Zeller, eds., Genocide in German South-West Africa: the Colonial War of 1904–1908 and its aftermath, London: Merlin Press, 2007Google Scholar. For a critique, see Stephan, Malinowski and Robert, Gerwarth, ‘Der Holocaust als “kolonialer Genozid”? Europäische Kolonialgewalt und nationalsozialistischer Vernichtungskrieg’, Geschichte und Gesellschaft, 33, 2007, pp. 439–66.Google Scholar

46 Pascal, Grosse, Kolonialismus, Eugenik und bürgerliche Gesellschaft in Deutschland 1850–1918, Frankfurt: Campus, 2000Google Scholar; Kundrus, Moderne Imperialisten, pp. 219–79.

47 Ann Laura, Stoler, ‘Rethinking colonial categories: European communities and the boundaries of rule’, in Comparative Studies in Society and History, 31, 1989, pp. 134–61.Google Scholar

48 See Lora, Wildenthal, German women for empire, 1884–1945, Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2001, pp. 121–9.Google Scholar

49 Krista O'Donnell, ‘Home, nation, empire: domestic Germanness and colonial citizenship’, in O'Donnell, Bridenthal, and Reagin, Heimat abroad, pp. 40–57; Claire B. Venghiattis, Mobilizing for nation and empire: a history of the German Women's Colonial Organization 1896–1936, PhD Thesis, Columbia University, 2005; Katharina Walgenbach, ‘Die weiße Frau als Trägerin deutscher Kultur’: Koloniale Diskurse über Geschlecht, ‘Rasse’ und Klasse im Kaiserreich, Frankfurt: Campus, 2005.

50 Wildenthal, German women, p. 86.

51 See Dieter, Gosewinkel, Einbürgern und Ausschließen: Die Nationalisierung der Staatsangehörigkeit vom Deutschen Bund bis zur Bundesrepublik Deutschland, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2001, pp. 263–77.Google Scholar

52 Trude, Maurer, Ostjuden in Deutschland, 1818–1933, Hamburg: Christians, 1986Google Scholar; Jack, Wertheimer, Unwelcome strangers: East European Jews in Imperial Germany, New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1987.Google Scholar

53 Helmut, Neubach, Die Ausweisung von Polen und Juden aus Preußen 1885/86, Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1967.Google Scholar

54 Massimo Ferrari, Zumbini, ‘Die Wurzel des Bösen’: Gründerjahre des Antisemitismus: von der Bismarckzeit zu Hitler, Frankfurt: Klostermann, 2003, p. 556.Google Scholar

55 Adolf Hentze, Hannover, to Colonial Office, 1 March 1907, in Federal Archives Berlin Lichterfelde (henceforth FABL), R 1001/2090, p. 109. See also Zimmerer, Deutsche Herrschaft, pp. 52–55.

56 FABL, R 8034 II, Nr. 5801, p. 52.

57 Illustrierte Landwirtschaftliche Zeitung, 6 January 1897.

58 For different national variations, see the excellent study by Heinz Gollwitzer, Die Gelbe Gefahr: Geschichte eines Schlagworts: Studien zum imperialistischen Denken, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1962.

59 Geoffrey, Barraclough, An introduction to contemporary history, Harmondsworth: C. A. Watts, 1964, p. 75.Google Scholar

60 ‘Drohende Chinesen-Einwanderung’ (14 June 1889), in Private State Archive Berlin (henceforth PSAB), I. HA Rep 77, Tit 922, no. 2.

61 Quoted from Kurt, Wawrzinek, Die Entstehung der deutschen Antisemitenparteien 1873–1890, Berlin: Ebering, 1927, p. 44.Google Scholar

62 See Gollwitzer, Gelbe Gefahr, p. 174.

63 Quoted from FABL, R 8034 II, no. 4049.

64 PSAB, I. HA Rep 87 B, no. 221, Director of the Feldarbeiterzentralstelle to the secretary of state of the interior, Berlin, 22 April 1911.

65 PSAB, I. HA Rep 87 B, no. 221, 20 February 1913. See also Johannes, Nichtweiß, Die ausländischen Saisonarbeiter in der Landwirtschaft der östlichen und mittleren Gebiete des Deutschen Reiches: Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der preußisch-deutschen Politik von 1890 bis 1914, Berlin: Rütten & Loening, 1959, pp. 138–43.Google Scholar

66 Deutsche Feldarbeiterzentralstelle, Bericht über die Tätigkeit im Geschäftsjahr 1909/10, Berlin, 1910, p. 14.

67 On Ruthenian nationalism, see John-Paul, Himka, Galician villagers and the Ukrainian national movement in the nineteenth century, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 1988Google Scholar; Hryniuk, Stella M., Peasants with promise: Ukrainians in Southeastern Galicia 1880–1900, Edmonton: Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Study Press, 1991.Google Scholar

68 District president of Oppeln to Prussian minister of the interior, 30 March 1912, in PSAB, I. HA, 87 B, no. 221.

69 Deutsche Feldarbeiterzentralstelle to the Prussian minister of agriculture, Berlin, 7 April 1909, in PSAB, I. HA, 87 B, no. 219, p. 161.

70 Provincial president of Westphalia to the Prussian minister of the interior, Gdansk, 22 August 1910, in PSAB, I. HA, Rep 77, Tit. 1135, no. 1, fascicle 7e, p. 4.

71 PSAB, I. HA, 87 B, no. 116, pp. 155–8.

72 Erika, Lee, At America's gates: the exclusion era 1882–1943, Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2003, p. 9.Google Scholar

73 Max Weber, ‘Die nationalen Grundlagen der Volkswirtschaft: Vortrag am 12. März 1895 in Frankfurt am Main [Bericht des Frankfurter Journals]’, in Max Weber, ed., Max Weber Gesamtausgabe, Band 4.2, Tübingen: Mohr, 1993, pp. 724–5.

74 Herbert, Geschichte der Ausländerpolitik; Nichtweiß, Saisonarbeiter.

75 Gérard, Noiriel, Die Tyrannei des Nationalen: Sozialgeschichte des Asylrechts in Europa, Lüneburg: zu Klampen, 1994, p. 308.Google Scholar

76 Jane, Caplan and John, Torpey, eds., Documenting individual identity: the development of state practices in the modern world, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002Google Scholar; John, Torpey, The invention of the passport: surveillance, citizenship and the state, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001.Google Scholar

77 Anton, Knoke, Ausländische Wanderarbeiter in Deutschland, Leipzig: Deicherts, 1911, p. 16.Google Scholar

78 Gosewinkel, Einbürgern; Grosse, Kolonialismus; Howard Sargent, ‘Diasporic citizens: Germans abroad in the framing of German citizenship law’, in O'Donnell, Bridenthal, and Reagin, Heimat abroad, pp. 17–39.

79 ‘Die Julitage des deutschen Liberalismus’, Grenzboten, 37, 1879, no. III, p. 124.

80 For the notion of global consciousness, see David, Harvey, The condition of postmodernity: an enquiry into the origins of cultural change, Oxford: Blackwell, 1989Google Scholar; Stephen, Kern, The culture of time and space 1880–1918, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983Google Scholar. For Germany, see Markus, Krajewski, Restlosigkeit: Weltprojekte um 1900, Frankfurt: Fischer, 2006.Google Scholar

81 Friedrich Ratzel, ‘Die Gesetze des räumlichen Wachstums der Staaten: Ein Beitrag zur wissenschaftlichen politischen Geographie’, Petermanns Mitteilungen, 42, 1896, pp. 97–107. See also Smith, Woodruff D., The ideological origins of Nazi imperialism, New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1986, pp. 146–52.Google Scholar

82 Wolf, Lepenies, The seduction of culture in German history, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006.Google Scholar

83 See Jörg Fisch, ‘Zivilisation, Kultur’, in Otto Brunner et al., eds., Geschichtliche Grundbegriffe: Historisches Lexikon zur politisch-sozialen Sprache in Deutschland, Bd. 7, Stuttgart: Klett Cotta, 1992, pp. 679–774. See also Kurt Flasch, Die geistige Mobilmachung: Die deutschen Intellektuellen und der Erste Weltkrieg, Berlin: Fest, 2000; Jeffrey, Verhey, The spirit of 1914: militarism, myth, and mobilization in Germany, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.Google Scholar

84 See, for example, Jens-Peter Hornbogen, Travail national – nationale Arbeit: Die handelspolitische Gesetzgebung in Frankreich und Deutschland vor dem Hintergrund der Debatte über Freihandel und Schutzzoll 1818–1892, Berlin: Duncker Humblot, 2002.

85 Joan, Campbell, Joy in work, German work: the national debate, 1800–1945, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1989.Google Scholar

86 Karl Lamprecht, Zur jüngsten deutschen Vergangenheit [1903], vol. 2, Berlin: Weidmannsche Buchhandlung, 1921, pp. 536f.

87 Ibid., p. 592.

88 See Benedict Anderson, Imagined communities, London: Verso, 1983. See also Geoffrey Cubitt, ed., Imagining nations, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1998.

89 Chatterjee, Nationalist thought.

90 Étienne Balibar, ‘The nation form’, in Etienne Balibar and Immanuel Wallerstein, ed., Race, nation, class: ambigious identities, London: Verso, 1991, pp. 86–106.

91 I have greatly benefited from the powerful argument in Hill, Christopher L., National history and the world of nations: writing Japan, France, the United States, 1870–1900, Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2008.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

92 Karl, Rebecca E., Staging the world: Chinese nationalism at the turn of the twentieth century, Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2002.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

93 Smith, Anthony D., Nationalism in the 20th Century, New York, NY: New York University Press, 1979, p. 191.Google Scholar

94 Patricia Clavin, ‘Defining trans-nationalism’, Contemporary European History, 14, 2005, pp. 421–39; Prasenjit Duara, ‘Trans-nationalism and the challenge to national histories’, in Thomas Bender, ed., Rethinking American history in a global age, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2002, pp. 25–46.

95 Prasenjit, Duara, Rescuing history from the nation: questioning narratives of modern China, Chicago, IL: Chicago University Press, 1995.Google Scholar

96 For similar arguments, see Manu, Goswami, Producing India: from colonial economy to national space, Chicago, IL: Chicago University Press, 2004Google Scholar; Hill, National History; Karl, Staging the world, pp. 17–25.

97 Otto, Hintze, ‘Über individualistische und kollektivistische Geschichtsauffassung’, Historische Zeitschrift, 78, 1897, pp. 60–7.Google Scholar