Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-jn8rn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-27T22:33:11.091Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Securing Central America Against Communism: The United States and the Modernization of Surveillance in the Cold War

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 January 2018

Robert H. Holden*
Affiliation:
Old Dominion University

Abstract

The US.-sponsored programs of military and police collaboration with the Central American governments during the Cold War also contributed to the surveillance capacity of those states during the period when the Central American state formation process was being completed. Guatemala is used as a case study. Washington’s contribution was framed by the conventional discourse of “security against communism” but also by an underlying technocratic ethos in which “modernization” and “security” were higher priorities than democratization.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © University of Miami 1999

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Note: the annotation Foia indicates that the author acquired the document through the Freedom of Information Act; archival documentation in such cases may be incomplete.Google Scholar
Acuerdo, Paz. 1992. Estudios Centroamericanos 47, 519–20 (January-February): 103–52.Google Scholar
Al-Mashat, Abdul Monem. 1985. National Security in the Third World Boulder : Westview Press.Google Scholar
Amnesty International. 1987. Guatemala: The Human Rights Record London : Amnesty International Publications.Google Scholar
Archivo Nacional de Nicaragua, Managua. 1965. Fondo Presidencial/Sección Defensa. Col. J. D. García M., Ministro de Defensa, to President René Schick, 29 November. Memorandum.Google Scholar
Campo Sepúlveda, J. 1955. Estrategia: losproblemas de la defensa nacional y la preparación del estrategia contemporaneo San Salvador : República de El Salvador, Ministerio de Defensa.Google Scholar
Carmack, Robert M., ed. 1988. Harvest of Violence: The Maya Indians and the Guatemalan Crisis Norman : University of Oklahoma Press.Google Scholar
Clapham, Christopher. 1985. Third World Politics: An Introduction Madison : University of Wisconsin Press.Google Scholar
Coatsworth, John H. 1994. Central America and the United States: The Clients and the Colossus New York : Twayne.Google Scholar
Comisión de Inteligencia de Ejércitos Americanos. 1987. Xvii Conferencia de Ejércitos Americanos Buenos Aires.Google Scholar
Consejo de Defensa Centroamericana. 1966. Organo de información del Consejo de Defensa Centroamericana Año 2. April. Comisión Permanente, Tegucigalpa.Google Scholar
Donner, Frank J. 1980. The Age of Surveillance: The Aims and Methods of America's Political Intelligence System New York : Alfred A. Knopf.Google Scholar
Falla, Ricardo. 1992. Masacres de la selva: Ixcán, Guatemala (1975–1982) Guatemala: Editorial Universitaria. (Translated into English as Massacres in the Jungle: Ixcán, Guatemala, 1975–82 Boulder : Westview Press, 1994).Google Scholar
Forch Petit, J. 1955. Organización de defensa nacional y organización militar San Salvador : República de El Salvador, Ministerio de Defensa Nacional.Google Scholar
Geyer, Georgie Anne. 1966. Twists and Turns of Our Guatemala Policy. Chicago Daily News, 24 December: 3.Google Scholar
Giddens, Anthony. 1985. The Nation-State and Violence Cambridge , UK : Polity Press.Google Scholar
Holden, Robert H. 1993. The Real Diplomacy of Violence: United States Military Power in Central America, 1950–1990. International History Review 15, 2 (May): 283321.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holden, Robert H. 1996. Constructing the Limits of State Violence in Central America: towards a New Research Agenda. Journal of Latin American Studies 28, 2(May): 435–59.Google Scholar
Honduras. Archivo de Historia Militar. Cuartel San Francisco, Tegucigalpa, 1967. Fuerzas Armadas de Honduras. Cuerpo Especial de Seguridad. Informe de la Vii Reunión de Jefes de Agencias de Seguridad de Centro-América, Panamá y Estados Unidos de América (Anse) y Jefes de Comunicaciones (Secat), Managua, Nicarauga, 6–9 de marzo de 1967.Google Scholar
Honduras. Colegio de Defensa Nacional/Biblioteca, Tegucigalpa 1967a. Consejo de Defensa Centroamericana. Comisión Permanente. Tercera Reunión del Consejo de Defensa Centroamericana. Tegicugalpa, June. Mimeograph.Google Scholar
Honduras. Colegio de Defensa Nacional/Biblioteca, Tegucigalpa 1967b. Secreto. Tercera reunión ordinaria del Consejo de Defensa Centroamericana. Informe sobre la I y Ii reuniones de oficiales de inteligencia G-2 de las fuerzas armadas … de Centroamérica y Panamá. May.Google Scholar
Jordan, John M. 1994. Machine-Age Ideology: Social Engineering and American Liberalism, 1911–1939 Chapel Hill : University of North Carolina Press.Google Scholar
Latham, M. E. 1996. Modernization as Ideology: Social Scientific Theory, National Identity, and American Foreign Policy, 1961–1963. Ph.D. diss., University of California, Los Angeles.Google Scholar
Loveman, Brian, and Thomas, M. Davies Jr. 1997. The Politics of Antipolitics. In The Politics of Antipolitics: The Military in Latin America, ed. Loveman, and Davies, Wilmington : Scholarly Resources. 314.Google Scholar
Manwaring, Max G., and Court, Prisk, eds. 1988. El Salvador at War: An Oral History of Conflict from the 1979 Insurrection to the Present Washington, DC : National Defense University Press.Google Scholar
Marks, Sally McCarthy. 1989. Introduction. In Covert Warfare: Intelligence, Counterintelligence, and Military Deception During the World War II Era, ed. John, Mendelsohn. Covert War in Latin America, vol. 10. New York : Garland. ixvi.Google Scholar
McDermott, J. 1966. Portent for the Future: Welfare Imperialism in Vietnam. The Nation, 7688.Google Scholar
Nicaragua. Ministerio de Defensa. 1966. Memoria del Ministerio de Defensa. n.d. Managua : Imprenta Nacional.Google Scholar
O'Donnell, Guillermo. 1973. Modernization and Bureaucratic-Authoritarianism: Studies in South American Politics Berkeley : Institute of International Studies, University of California.Google Scholar
Pérez, Louis A. 1982. Intervention, Hegemony, and Dependency: the United States in the Circum-Caribbean, 1898–1980. Pacific Historical Review 51, 2 (May): 165–94.Google Scholar
Rockwell, Richard C., and Richard, H. Moss 1993. Reconceptualizing Security: A Note About Research. In Mexico: In Search of Security, ed. Bruce, Michael Bagley and Sergio, Aguayo Quezada. Coral Gables : North South Center, University of Miami.Google Scholar
Rubenberg, Cheryl A. 1986. Israel and Guatemala: Arms, Advice and Counterinsurgency. Middle East Report (May-June): 1622.Google Scholar
Schelling, Thomas C. 1966. Arms and Influence New Haven : Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Somavía, Juan, and José, M. Insulza, eds. 1990. Seguridad democrática regional: una concepción alternativa Caracas : Nueva Sociedad.Google Scholar
U.S. Agency for International Development (AID). 1957. Mutual Security Program. Vol. Iv, Program Estimates Fiscal Year 1957: Latin America Non-Regional. Usaid Library, Rosslyn, Va.Google Scholar
Jordan, John M. 1971. Evaluation: Public Safety Program, Usaid Guatemala. December. Gt/363.2/G615a. Usaid Library, Rosslyn, Va.Google Scholar
U.S. Army Center of Military History, Washington, DC. 1966. U.S. Southern Command, Historical Report Calander [sic] Year 1966.Google Scholar
U.S. Army Military History Institute Archives, Carlisle Barracks, PA. 1967. Papers of Albert H. Smith, Jr. File 13. Counterinsurgency, Commander in Chief, U.S. Southern Command, 30 August.Google Scholar
U.S. Army Military History Institute Library, Carlisle Barracks, PA. 1963. Oo/Dd/Isa/Map/G95/Jy63. Dod, Office of the Director of Military Assistance, Military Assistance Plan, Guatemala, 15 July.Google Scholar
U.S. Army Military History Institute Library, Carlisle Barracks, PA. 1965. U.S. Army Mission to El Salvador, Mission Program Report. January-October. Maag/S14/Pr/Arm.Google Scholar
U.S. Army Military History Institute Library, Carlisle Barracks, PA. 1967. Eighth Special Forces. Unit History Section. 1966 Supplement to Historical Monograph of 8th Special Forces Group Training Activities in Latin America. 9 March.Google Scholar
U.S. Defense Intelligence Agency. 1983. Foia. Military Intelligence Summary: Volume Viii, Latin America. December.Google Scholar
U.S. Department of Defense. 1993 Base Guide: Soto Cano Air Base and Joint Task Force Bravo. Comayagua, Honduras.Google Scholar
U.S. Department of State. 1942. Third Meeting of Ministers of Foreign Affairs of the American Republics. Department of State Bulletin 4, 137 (7 February): 117–41.Google Scholar
U.S. Department of State. 1963. American Foreign Policy: Current Documents 1963. Declaration of Central America. Issued at San José, Costa Rica, by the presidents of Central America, Panama, and the United States. 19 March. Washington, Dc: Gpo.Google Scholar
U.S. Department of State. 1987a. Telegram from the Ambassador in Guatemala (Armour) to the Dept. of State, 8 May 1955. Quoted in Foreign Relations of the United States 1955–1957 American Republics: Central and South America Washington, DC : GPO. 77.Google Scholar
U.S. Department of State. 1987b. National Intelligence Estimate. Probable Developments in Guatemala. 26 July 1955. In Foreign Relations of the United States, 1955–1957 vol. 7 American Republics: Central and South America Washington, DC : GPO. 97.Google Scholar
U.S. Intelligence Oversight Board (IOB). 1996. Report on the Guatemala Review. Washington, DC: 28 June. Copy at http:www.us.netcipiob.htm, Center for International Policy, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
U.S. National Archives (NA), Washington, DC. 1961. Agency for International Development (Aid). Foia. Burrows, Department of State [hereafter Dos], Tegucigalpa, Monthly Report, October, Public Safety Division (Honduras), to Aid/Washington, 30 November.Google Scholar
U.S. National Archives (NA), Washington, DC. RG 59. 199596. Foia. Reports. 715.521/8–354 [Stephansky]; 716.521/5–553 Cs/W [Honduran]; 714.521/1–1255 Cs/W [St. Croix]; 716.521/6–154 [Salazar].Google Scholar
U.S. National Archives (NA), Washington, DC. RG 59. 1956. 714.5-Msp/6–756. U.S. Embassy/Guatemala to Dos, 7 June.Google Scholar
U.S. National Archives (NA), Washington, DC. RG 59. 1957. 714.551/8–1357. Thomas C. Mann, Us Emb/San Salvador to Dos, 13 August.Google Scholar
U.S. National Archives (NA), Washington, DC. RG 59. 1959. 714.58/12–3159. Jesús Rubén González Siguí, Minister of National Defense, Guatemala, to U.S. Embassy/Guatemala, 10 December.Google Scholar
U.S. National Archives (NA), Washington, DC. RG 59. 1960. Foia. 714.58/7–2660. Robert Foster Corrigan, Counselor, Guatemala City, to Dos, 26 July.Google Scholar
U.S. National Archives (NA), Washington, DC. RG 59. 1961a. 713–52/10–1061. Moncrief, Managua, to Dos, 10 October.Google Scholar
U.S. National Archives (NA), Washington, DC. RG 59. 1961b. Foia. 710.5/11–261. Dos circular from Bowles to Central American and Caribbean embassies, 2 November.Google Scholar
U.S. National Archives (NA), Washington, DC. RG 59. 1962a. Foia. 515.373/3–962. Rusk, Dos, to U.S. Consulate, San Pedro Sula, 9 March.Google Scholar
U.S. National Archives (NA), Washington, DC. RG 59. 1962b. Foia. 714.5/5–2962, Bell, Guatemala City, to Dos, 29 May.Google Scholar
U.S. National Archives (NA), Washington, DC. RG 84, 1967. Foia. Box 58. John H. Caldwell, Regional Immigration Adviser, to Ted Brown, chief, Latin American branch, Ops, 23 January.Google Scholar
U.S. National Archives (NA), Washington, DC. RG 218. 1959. 9122/9105 Gp. 1 (1959). James W. Courts, Chief of Staff, Caribbean Command, to Joint Chiefs of Staff [Jcs], 4 November.Google Scholar
U.S. National Archives (NA), Washington, DC. RG 218. 1959. 9122/9105 Sec. 2 (1959). Gen. Earle G. Wheeler, director, Jcs, to Chairman, Jcs, 6 March 1961.Google Scholar
U.S. National Archives (NA), Washington, DC. RG 218. 1961. Ccs 9/22/9105 Central America Section 1. R. N. Dallam, Caribbean Command, to Jcs, 1 November.Google Scholar
U.S. National Archives (NA), Washington, DC. RG 218. 1961. 9122/9105 (1961) Cent. Am. Sec. 8. L. L. Lemnitzer, chairman, Jcs, to Sec. of Defense, 13 September.Google Scholar
U.S. National Archives (NA), Washington, DC. RG 286. 1957. Ops/Oper/La Guat 1955–61 Box 60, 1955–58. Usom/Guat to Ica/W, 27 February.Google Scholar
U.S. National Archives (NA), Washington, DC. RG 286. 1958. Ops/Oper/La Guat 1955–63, Guatemala Reports, Public Safety Program, Usom, Guatemala, November.Google Scholar
U.S. National Archives (NA), Washington, DC. RG 286. 1960a. Aid/Ops: Director's Numerical File. Box 4, Ips 2–3: Program Surveys. Department of Defense Internal Security Program, enclosure to Dos Instruction to all Ara diplomatic posts, 7 November.Google Scholar
U.S. National Archives (NA), Washington, DC. RG 286. 1960b. Foia. Op div/La br/Guat. Usom/Guat to Ica, 25 August.Google Scholar
U.S. National Archives (NA), Washington, DC. RG 286. 1961. Aid/Ops: Director's Numerical Files/Box 3/General Reports and Statistics, Internal Security Programs, 20 March.Google Scholar
U.S. National Archives (NA), Washington, DC. RG 286. 1962a. Aid/Ops: Director's Numerical Files/Ops History: References, Box 1. Report of Interdepartmental Technical Subcommittee on Police Advisory Assistance Programs, 11 June.Google Scholar
U.S. National Archives (NA), Washington, DC. RG 286. 1962b. Foia. Op Div/La Br/Guat, Us Emb/Guat to Sec. of State, Internal Defense Plan, Guatemala, September.Google Scholar
U.S. National Archives (NA), Washington, DC. RG 286. 1963a. Foia. Rg 286. Managua Conference. Movement of Subversives and Subversive Trainees [sic] (Office of Public Safety), drafted by H. Hardin, no date, but probably 1963.Google Scholar
U.S. National Archives (NA), Washington, DC. RG 286. 1963b. Ops/Ops/La, Guat 1964–74, Box 63, Ips-1–3. Guatemala Fy65 Cap, 27 September.Google Scholar
U.S. National Archives (NA), Washington, DC. RG 286. 1963c. Ops/Ops/La, Guat 1964–74, Box 63, Ips-1–3. Guatemala Fy65 Cap, 27 September.Google Scholar
U.S. National Archives (NA), Washington, DC. RG 286. 1963d. Foia. Op Div/La Br/Guat, Internal Defense Plan, Guatemala, Progress Report (Comments of Inter-Departmental Working Group), 28 May.Google Scholar
U.S. National Archives (NA), Washington, DC. RG 286. 1963e. Foia. Op Div/La Br/Guat, Us Emb/Guat to Sec. of State, Internal Defense Plan for Guatemala, Progress Report, 19 March.Google Scholar
U.S. National Archives (NA), Washington, DC. RG 286. 1964. Office of Public Safety/Latin America/Costa Rica/Ips 1. Raine, Chargé d'Affaires, U.S. Embassy, San José, to Usaid/Washington, 10 June.Google Scholar
U.S. National Archives (NA), Washington, DC. RG 286. 1966. Ops/Oper/La El Sal 1956–63, Box 55, Ips-1–1. Aid, Country Assistance Program Fy 1968, El Salvador, part 2, October.Google Scholar
U.S. National Archives (NA), Washington, DC. RG 286. 1967a. Foia. Op div/La Br/Guat., Ops/Guat to Aid/W, 22 September.Google Scholar
U.S. National Archives (NA), Washington, DC. RG 286. 1967b Op Div/La Br/Guat.Google Scholar
U.S. National Archives (NA), Washington, DC. RG 286. 1970. Aid/Ops/Office of the Director/Regional Briefing and Fact Books, 1965–73. Ops Regional Briefing Book.Google Scholar
U.S. National Archives (NA), Washington, DC. RG 286. 1971. Foia. Op div/La br/Guat. Usemb/Guat to Dos, 10 September.Google Scholar
Van Tuyll, H. P. 1994. Militarism, the United States, and the Cold War. Armed Forces and Society 20, 4 (Summer): 519–31.Google Scholar