Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-dk4vv Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T08:09:29.074Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Is there any Indication for Ethics Evidence? An Argument for the Admissibility of some Expert Bioethics Testimony

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 January 2021

Extract

Professor Imwinkelried is surely right: the propriety of bioethicists serving as expert witnesses in litigation is problematic, and, I would add, it should remain problematic. Such testimony most certainly does not belong everywhere it will be offered by lawyers and litigants in an effort to advance their interests. Yet in contrast to some commentators, Imwinkelried and I both see a place for bioethicists serving as expert witnesses, although we differ significantly on how to understand and justify this place. In any event, serious questions regarding the proper place for expert bioethicist testimony in the courtroom do exist, not only for law but also bioethics as well.

The threshold question regarding the prospect of bioethicists serving as expert witnesses would seemingly have to be: “could a bioethicist qualify as an expert witness under the controlling rules of evidence?” Imwinkelried, however, does not perceive any need to even entertain this question as he claims that “technical evidentiary standards are inapplicable when information is presented to a judge to permit the judge to perform… a legislative or law-making function.”

Type
Symposium
Copyright
Copyright © American Society of Law, Medicine and Ethics 2005

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

E.g., Scofield, G., “Is the Medical Ethicist an ‘Expert?’” Bioethics Bulletin 3, no. 1 (1994): 12, 9–10, 28.Google Scholar
Imwinkelried, E. J., “Expert Testimony by Ethicists: What Should be the Norm?” Journal of Law, Medicine and Ethics 33, no. 2 (2005): 198221, at 199.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Id. at 206.Google Scholar
Id. at 199.Google Scholar
Id. at 199.Google Scholar
“The court may on its own motion…enter an order to show cause why expert witnesses should not be appointed, and may request the parties to submit nominations. The court may appoint…expert witnesses of its own selection.”Google Scholar
The pancreas self destructs, and the person suffers from diabetes.Google Scholar
See Cal. Penal Code §11165.2(b) (2004).Google Scholar
See Cal. Penal Code §11166 (failure to report child abuse/neglect punishable by 6 months in the county jail or a fine of $1000 or both).Google Scholar
Imwinkelreid, , supra note 2, at 200.Google Scholar
For example, in a civil lawsuit over the wrongful death of a beloved companion animal that is trying to make new law by attempting to recover damages in excess of the market value of the pet, the judge and jury are surely unlikely to profit from knowing the historical fact that “Jeremy Bentham, the founder of utilitarianism, believed that all sentient beings, and not just human beings, are morally considerable and can have moral duties owed to them” or that “Philosopher Mary Anne Warren has stated that nonhuman members of interspecies communities [her term for pets] have greater moral status than the same animal considered apart from those communities.”Google Scholar
Imwinkelreid, , supra note 2, at 201.Google Scholar
Id. at 200.Google Scholar
Id. at 200.Google Scholar
Id. at 200. This assumes, of course, that the standard in question is supported by an explicit argument when this may not always be the case.Google Scholar
Committee on Bioethics, American Academy of Pediatrics, “Guidelines on Forgoing Life-Sustaining Medical Treatment,” Pediatrics 93, no. 3 (1994): 532536, at 532–533, 535.Google Scholar
Imwinkelried, , supra note 2, at 202.Google Scholar
Id. at 201.Google Scholar
Rachels, J., The Elements of Moral Philosophy (NY: McGraw-Hill, 2001): at 1.Google Scholar
Id. at 12.Google Scholar
Id. at 13.Google Scholar
Id. at 14.Google Scholar
Id. at 14–15.Google Scholar
Imwinkelried, , supra note 2, at 204–206.Google Scholar
Scofield, , supra note 1, at 2.Google Scholar
McAllen, P. and Delgado, R., “Moral Experts in the Courtroom,” Hastings Center Report 14, no. 1 (1984): 2734, at 31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
See, e.g., Caplan, A., “Bioethics on Trial,” Hastings Center Report 21, no. 2 (1991): 1920 (fairness of the legal process will be compromised if bioethics experts are used by one party to claim that “ethics” is on her side and not the other).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McAllen, and Delgado, , supra note 30, at 32.Google Scholar
See Friedman v. New York, 282 N.Y.S.2d 858 (NY a. CI. 1967) in which a rabbi testified about the injured plaintiff's actions being consistent with her religious beliefs. This descriptive testimony enabled the plaintiff to avoid the defense's claim that her behavior, rather than the negligence of the defendant, caused her injuries.Google Scholar
McAllen, and Delgado, , supra note 30, at 29.Google Scholar
Scofield, , supra note 1, at 28.Google Scholar
McAllen, and Delgado, , supra note 30, at 31.Google Scholar
Imwinkelried, , supra note 2, at 208. He also notes that normative testimony may evidence a “consensus on particular normative propositions” and that such consensus helps maintain the legitimacy of the judiciary by “ensur[ing] that for the most part, their decisions are acceptable to the majority of the citizenry.” Id. at 208. But ethicists should never tally the votes of citizens, other ethicists, or anyone else when constructing their substantive moral positions as popular vote alone never determines ethical justification and truth.Google Scholar
Id. at 199.Google Scholar
Id. at 207, 209.Google Scholar
Id. at 209.Google Scholar
Id. at 209, citing Wisconsin Ornamental Iron & Bronze Co. v. Tax Commission, 233 N.W. 72, 75 (Wis. 1930).Google Scholar
Id. at 209.Google Scholar
1. The information is not being offered for a legislative purpose. 2. The legal standard should require or invite the decision maker to bring moral judgment to bear on the decision at hand. 3. The standard ought to be interpreted as alluding to normative moral judgment. 4. The law of the jurisdiction should allocate the decision to the trier of fact. Id. at 209–210.Google Scholar
Id. at 210.Google Scholar
Id. at 210. My reasons for concluding that neither example justifies the use of expert ethics testimony are discussed infra.Google Scholar
See note 51 and accompanying text, infra.Google Scholar
McAllen, and Delgado, , supra note 30, at 27.Google Scholar
Federal Rules of Evidence 702.Google Scholar
Kumho Tire Co. v. Carmichael, 526 U.S. 137, 147 (1999).Google Scholar
Calhoun v. Yamaha Motor Corp., 350 F.3d 316, 321 (3rd Cir. 2003).Google Scholar
Federal Rule of Evidence 702, Advisory Committee Note (emphasis added).Google Scholar
Rachels, , supra note 27 and accompanying text.Google Scholar
Calhoun, , supra note 50, at 321 (quoting Daubert, 509 U.S. at 590).Google Scholar
Id. (citations omitted).Google Scholar
See, e.g., Meisel, A., The Right to Die (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Supp., 2003).Google Scholar
McAllen, and Delgado, , supra note 30, at 31.Google Scholar
Agich, G. and Spielman, B., “Against the Skeptics: Ethics Expert Testimony,” Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 22 (1997): 381403, at 386.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Id. at 392–393.Google Scholar
To be sure, no legal license or social mandate exists that can be used to identify a bioethicist as there is for a physician, a general contractor, or even a cosmetologist. Nonetheless, bioethics is an academic field that has an ever-growing literature, common concepts, areas of at least rough consensus (e.g., informed consent), and some standards as articulated by certain respected individuals or groups (like the American Society for Bioethics and Humanities). Venerable medical schools and universities hire persons to teach and practice in this field. An individual purporting to be a bioethicist can be examined and cross-examined on her expert knowledge of this field and her experience in dealing with practical problems in medicine and the biological sciences.Google Scholar
Granted, bioethics does not meet all of the standard sociological criteria for a “profession.” However, this does not mean that just anyone can claim to be an expert at bioethics as an academic field or to do bioethics in a professional manner and not as an amateur or hobbyist.Google Scholar
Imwinkelried recognizes this. “[T]he judge ought to insist that the expert provide more than his or her bottom-line conclusion concerning the normative propriety of the conduct, The judge should reject the expert's testimony unless the expert sets out his or her entire reasoning process, including his or her prelogical value assumptions.” Imwinkelreid, , supra note 2, at 211.Google Scholar
Id. at 202.Google Scholar
See Federal Rule of Evidence 706, supra note 10; In re Guardianship of Schiavo, 800 So.2d.640, 646 (Fla. Ct. App. 2001) (trial court to appoint independent physician to examine and evaluate patient's condition).Google Scholar
Probably the single best way to keep an ethics expert witness “honest” is for the opposing side to have its own ethicist of equal or greater education, experience, and confidence in conducting ethical analysis and discourse.Google Scholar
Imwinkelried, , supra note 2, at 208.Google Scholar
This summarizes the policy as of the mid-90's of the California Department of Developmental Disabilities which operates several facilities that care for the developmentally disabled.Google Scholar
Nelson, L. Rushton, C. Cranford, R. Nelson, R. Glover, J., and Truog, R., “Forgoing Medically Provided Nutrition and Hydration in Pediatric Patients,” Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics 23, no. 1 (1995): 3346.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Imwinkelried, , supra note 2.Google Scholar
Id. at 210.Google Scholar
id at 210.Google Scholar
Scheer v. Entel Radiological Associates, M.D., P.A. (No. 86-14316-14, Circuit Court, Pinellas County, Florida)Google Scholar
Hammond v. Bronson Healthcare Group, Inc., et al. (No. A90–0098-CK, Circuit Court, Kalamazoo County, Michigan, filed January 10, 1990).Google Scholar
Unless expressly sealed by court order, all papers filed with a court and all testimony held in open court are matters of public record and are available to anyone with the knowledge, patience, and resources to find them. The fact that they are not published in the usual sense of the word makes them no less public. It is neither a breach of confidentiality nor dishonorable scholarly practice to cite-accurately and in proper context, of course-the testimony of bioethicists (or anyone else) given in lawsuits. For example, my testimony as an expert witness in the Wendland case has been criticized in print. Spielman, B., “Professionalism in Forensic Bioethics,” Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics 30 (2002): 420439, at 424.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caplan, , supra note 31.Google Scholar
Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 509 U.S. 579 (1993); Kumho Tire Co. v. Carmichael, 526 U.S. 137 (1999).Google Scholar
The bioethicist who testified in Hall v. Anwar, 774 So.2d 41 (2001) (Fla. 2d Dist. Ct. App. 2001), petition for appellate review denied, 791 So.2d 1097 (Fla. 2001) should have stayed off the stand in the first place give the uselessness of his testimony. See Spielman, , supra note 74, at 421.Google Scholar
Spielman, , supra note 74, at 432–433.Google Scholar