Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-jkksz Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-27T08:04:31.290Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Courage in the workplace: The effects of organizational level and gender on the relationship between behavioral courage and job performance

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 May 2018

Oleksandr Tkachenko ,
Louis N. Quast ,
Wei Song  and
Soebin Jang
Oleksandr Tkachenko*
Affiliation:
Organization, Information & Learning Sciences, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, USA
Louis N. Quast
Affiliation:
Department of Organizational Leadership, Policy, and Development, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
Wei Song
Affiliation:
Department of Educational Psychology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
Soebin Jang
Affiliation:
Department of Organizational Leadership, Policy, and Development, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
*
Corresponding author: tkachenko@unm.edu
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This study examines the relationship between behavioral courage and job performance, and explores the possible effects of organizational level and gender on this relationship. With a sample of managers from mid- to large-sized for-profit organizations in the United States, we found that behavioral courage was positively associated with job performance. Our results also revealed significant differences in supervisors’ ratings of behavioral courage between employees at low and high organizational levels. The effects of behavioral courage on job performance did not vary by organizational level. In turn, the moderating effect of gender on the association between behavioral courage and job performance was supported. The study results provide important theoretical and practical implications in the fields of organizational behavior, leadership studies, and human resource development. Recommendations for future research are discussed.

Keywords

workplace couragebehavioral couragejob performancegenderorganizational level
Type
Research Article
Information
Journal of Management & Organization , Volume 26 , Issue 5 , September 2020 , pp. 899 - 915
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press and Australian and New Zealand Academy of Management 2018

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Augustin (1887). On the morals of the Catholic Church. In P. Schaff (Ed.), St. Augustin: The writings against the Manichaeans, and against the Donatists, a select library of the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church (Vol. 4, pp. 41–63). Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing [Orig. pub. 388].Google Scholar
Avolio, B. J., Mhatre, K., Norman, S. M., & Lester, P. (2009). The moderating effect of gender on leadership intervention impact: An exploratory review. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 15(4), 325–341. https://doi.org/10.1177/1548051809333194 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baker, S. D. (2007). Followership: The theoretical foundation of a contemporary construct. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 14(1), 50–60. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002831207304343 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bass, B. M. (1998). The ethics of transformational leadership. In J. Ciulla (Ed.), Ethics, the heart of leadership (pp. 169–192). Westport, CT: Praeger.Google Scholar
Bono, J. E., Braddy, P. W., Liu, Y., Gilbert, E. K., Fleenor, J. W., Quast, L. N., & Center, B. A. (2017). Dropped on the way to the top: Gender and managerial derailment. Personnel Psychology, 70(4), 729–768.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, M. E., & Treviño, L. K. (2006). Ethical leadership: A review and future directions. The Leadership Quarterly, 17(6), 595–616. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2006.10.004 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chaleff, I. (1995). The courageous follower: Standing up to and for our leaders. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler.Google Scholar
Chun, R. (2005). Ethical character and virtue of organizations: An empirical assessment and strategic implications. Journal of Business Ethics, 57(3), 269–284. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-004-6591-2 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, J. M., Quast, L. N., Jang, S., Wohkittel, J. M., Center, B., Edwards, K., & Bovornusvakool, W. (2016). GLOBE Study culture clusters: Can they be found in importance ratings of managerial competencies? European Journal of Training and Development, 40(7), 534–553. https://doi.org/10.1108/EJTD-03-2016-0016 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Collins, J. C., & Callahan, J. L. (2012). Risky business: Gay identity disclosure in a masculinized industry. Human Resource Development International, 15(4), 455–470. https://doi.org/10.1080/13678868.2012.706427 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dahlsgaard, K., Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. E. (2005). Shared virtue: The convergence of valued human strengths across culture and history. Review of General Psychology, 9(3), 203–213. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.9.3.203 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dai, G., Yii Tang, K., & De Meuse, K. P. (2011). Leadership competencies across organizational levels: A test of the pipeline model. Journal of Management Development, 30(4), 366–380. https://doi.org/10.1108/02621711111126837 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Detert, J. R., & Bruno, E. A. (2017). Workplace courage: Review, synthesis, and future agenda for a complex construct. Academy of Management Annals, 11(2), 593–639. https://doi.org/10.5465/annals.2015.0155 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eagly, A. H. (2007). Female leadership advantage and disadvantage: Resolving the contradictions. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 31(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.14716402.2007.00326.x CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eagly, A. H., & Carli, L. L. (2003). The female leadership advantage: An evaluation of the evidence. The Leadership Quarterly, 14(6), 807–834. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2003.09.004 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eagly, A. H., Johannesen-Schmidt, M. C., & Van Engen, M. L. (2003). Transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership styles: A meta-analysis comparing women and men. Psychological Bulletin, 129(4), 569–591. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.129.4.569 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eagly, A. H., Wood, W., & Diekman, A. B. (2000). Social role theory of sex differences and similarities: A current appraisal. In T. Eckes, & H. M. Trautner (Eds.), The developmental social psychology of gender (pp. 123–174). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Grahek, M. S., Thompson, A. D., & Toliver, A. (2010). The character to lead: A closer look at character in leadership. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 62(4), 270–290. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022385 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harbour, M., & Kisfalvi, V. (2014). In the eye of the beholder: An exploration of managerial courage. Journal of Business Ethics, 119(4), 493–515. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-013-1835-7 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hornstein, H. A. (1986). Managerial courage: Revitalizing your company without sacrificing your job. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Jacobs, T. O., & Lewis, P. (1992). Leadership requirements in stratified systems. In R. L. Phillips, & J. G. Hunt (Eds.), Strategic leadership: A multiorganizational-level perspective (pp. 15–25). Westport, CT: Quorum Books.Google Scholar
Kaiser, R. B., & Craig, S. B. (2011). Do the behaviors related to managerial effectiveness really change with organizational level? An empirical test. The Psychologist-Manager Journal, 14(2), 92–119. https://doi.org/10.1080/10887156.2011.570140 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Karatepe, O. M., Yavas, U., Babakus, E., & Avci, T. (2006). Does gender moderate the effects of role stress in frontline service jobs? Journal of Business Research, 59(10), 1087–1093. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2006.08.004 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kilmann, R. H., O’Hara, L. A., & Strauss, J. P. (2010). Developing and validating a quantitative measure of organizational courage. Journal of Business and Psychology, 25(1), 15–23. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-009-9125-1 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kim, B. P., Murrmann, S. K., & Lee, G. (2009). Moderating effects of gender and organizational level between role stress and job satisfaction among hotel employees. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 28(4), 612–619. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2009.04.001 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klein, M., & Napier, R. (2003). The courage to act: 5 factors of courage to transform business. Palo Alto, CA: Davies–Black Publishing.Google Scholar
Koerner, M. M. (2014). Courage as identity work: Accounts of workplace courage. Academy of Management Journal, 57(1), 63–93. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2010.0641 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kouzes, J. M., & Posner, B. Z. (2008). The leadership challenge. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Lawrence, B. S. (1988). New wrinkles in the theory of age: Demography, norms, and performance ratings. Academy of Management Journal, 31, 309–337. https://doi.org/10.2307/256550 Google Scholar
Lester, P. B., Vogelgesang, G., Hannah, S. T., & Kimmey, T. (2010). Developing courage in followers: Theoretical and applied perspectives. In C. Pury, & S. Lopez (Eds.), The psychology of courage: Modern research on an ancient virtue (pp. 210–245). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Lim, D. H., Song, J. H., & Choi, M. (2012). Work-family interface: Effect of enrichment and conflict on job performance of Korean workers. Journal of Management & Organization, 18(3), 383–397. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1833367200000869 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
May, D. R., Luth, M. T., & Schwoerer, C. E. (2014). The influence of business ethics education on moral efficacy, moral meaningfulness, and moral courage: A quasi-experimental study. Journal of Business Ethics, 124(1), 67–80. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-013-1860-6 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
May, R. (1975). The courage to create. New York, NY: Norton.Google Scholar
McKay, P. F., & McDaniel, M. A. (2006). A reexamination of black-white mean differences in work performance: More data, more moderators. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 91(3), 538–554. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.91.3.538 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mumford, T. V., Campion, M. A., & Morgeson, F. P. (2007). The leadership skills strataplex: Leadership skill requirements across organizational levels. The Leadership Quarterly, 18(2), 154–166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2007.01.005 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ng, T. W., & Feldman, D. C. (2010). Organizational tenure and job performance. Journal of Management, 36(5), 1220–1250. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206309359809 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O’Connell, W. (2009). Courageous leadership (Unpublished Doctorial dissertation). The Claremont Graduate University, Claremont, CA.Google Scholar
Palanski, M. E., Cullen, K. L., Gentry, W. A., & Nichols, C. M. (2015). Virtuous leadership: Exploring the effects of leader courage and behavioral integrity on leader performance and image. Journal of Business Ethics, 132(2), 297–310. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-014-23172 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
PDI Ninth House (2004). PROFILOR ® for managers . Minneapolis, MN: PDI Ninth House.Google Scholar
PDI Ninth House (2006). PROFILOR ® technical summary . Minneapolis, MN: PDI Ninth House.Google Scholar
Peterson, C., & Park, N. (2006). Character strengths in organizations. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 27(8), 1149–1154. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.398 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2004). Character strengths and virtues. Washington, DC: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Plato (1961). Laches (B. Jowett, Trans.). In E. Hamilton & H. Cairns (Eds.),The Collected Dialogues of Plato, Including the Letters (pp. 123-144). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Pury, C. L., & Lopez, S. J. (2010). The psychology of courage: Modern research on an ancient virtue. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pury, C. L., Lopez, S. J., & Key-Roberts, M. (2010). The future of courage research. In C. L. Pury, & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), The psychology of courage: Modern research on an ancient virtue (pp. 229–235). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rachman, S. J. (1990). Fear and courage (2nd ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman and Company.Google Scholar
Rana, S., Ardichvili, A., & Tkachenko, O. (2014). A theoretical model of the antecedents and outcomes of employee engagement: Dubin’s method. Journal of Workplace Learning, 26(3/4), 249–266. https://doi.org/10.1108/JWL-09-2013-0063 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rankin, L. E., & Eagly, A. H. (2008). Is his heroism hailed and hers hidden? Women, men, and the social construction of heroism. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 32(4), 414–422. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2008.00455.x CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rate, C. R., Clarke, J. A., Lindsay, D. R., & Sternberg, R. J. (2007). Implicit theories of courage. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 2(2), 80–98. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760701228755 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rate, C. R., & Sternberg, R. J. (2007). When good people do nothing: A failure of courage. In J., Langan-Fox, C. L. Cooper, & R. J. Klimoski (Eds.), Research companion to the dysfunctional workplace: Management challenges and symptoms (pp. 3–21). Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.Google Scholar
Schilpzand, P., Hekman, D. R., & Mitchell, T. R. (2014). An inductively generated typology and process model of workplace courage. Organization Science, 26(1), 52–77. https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.2014.0928 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sekerka, L. E., & Bagozzi, R. P. (2007). Moral courage in the workplace: Moving to and from the desire and decision to act. Business Ethics: A European Review, 16(2), 132–149. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8608.2007.00484.x CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sekerka, L. E., McCarthy, J. D., & Bagozzi, R. P. (2011). Developing professional moral courage: Leadership lessons from everyday ethical challenges in today’s military. In D. R. Comer, & G. Vega (Eds.), Moral courage in organizations: Doing the right thing at work (pp. 130–141). Arkmonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe.Google Scholar
Simola, S. (2015). Understanding moral courage through a feminist and developmental ethic of care. Journal of Business Ethics, 130(1), 29–44. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-014-2203-y CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sosik, J. J., Gentry, W. A., & Chun, J. U. (2012). The value of virtue in the upper echelons: A multisource examination of executive character strengths and performance. The Leadership Quarterly, 23(3), 367–382. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2011.08.010 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Staub, R. E. (1996). The heart of leadership: 12 practices of courageous leaders. Provo, UT: Executive Excellence.Google Scholar
Stephenson, W. (1953). Q-technique and its methodology. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Van Eynde, D. F. (1998). A case for courage in organizations. Management Review, 87(2), 62.Google Scholar
Wang, A. C., Chiang, J. T. J., Tsai, C. Y., Lin, T. T., & Cheng, B. S. (2013). Gender makes the difference: The moderating role of leader gender on the relationship between leadership styles and subordinate performance. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 122(2), 101–113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2013.06.001 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ward, L. (2001). Nobility and necessity: The problem of courage in Aristotle’s Nicomachean ethics. American Political Science Review, 95(1), 71–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Woodard, C. R., & Pury, C. L. (2007). The construct of courage: Categorization and measurement. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 59(2), 135–147. https://doi.org/10.1037/1065-9293.59.2.135 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Worline, M. C. (2004). Valor. In C. Peterson, & M. Seligman (Eds.), Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification (pp. 213–228). Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Worline, M. C. (2012). Courage in organizations: An integrative review of the ‘difficult virtue’. In G. M. Spreitzer, & K. S. Cameron (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of positive organizational scholarship (pp. 304–315). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Worline, M. C., Wrzesniewski, A., & Rafaeli, A. (2002). Courage and work: Breaking routines to improve performance. In R. Lord, R. Klimoski, & R. Kanfer (Eds.), Emotions at work (pp. 295–330). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.Google Scholar
Zenger, J., & Folkman, J. (2012). Are women better leaders than men? Harvard Business Review, 15, 80–85.Google Scholar