Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-v9fdk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-10T11:32:24.317Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

No Justice, No Peace: Political Science Perspectives on the American Carceral State

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  29 October 2020

Allison P. Harris ,
Hannah L. Walker Open the ORCID record for Hannah L. Walker [Opens in a new window]  and
Laurel Eckhouse
Allison P. Harris
Affiliation:
Yale University
Hannah L. Walker*
Affiliation:
University of Texas at Austin
Laurel Eckhouse
Affiliation:
University of Denver
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Hannah L. Walker, University of Texas at Austin, 116 Inner Campus Drive, Austin, Texas, 78712. E-mail: hlwalker@utexas.edu
Get access

Abstract

This essay explores four key dimensions of political science literature on the U.S. criminal legal system, by way of introducing articles in the special issue on criminal justice featured in the Journal of Racial and Ethnic Politics. We situate police as an institution of social control, rather than providing safety for people vulnerable to crime. The vast array of policy tools to surveil, track, and detain citizens, which lack commensurate restraints on their application, amount to a finely tuned carceral machine that can be deployed against groups newly identified as deviant. We therefore turn attention to this dynamic with our second theme: the criminalization of immigrants, the expansion of interior immigration enforcement, and the consequent targeting of Latinx people. We likewise discuss lessons for reform that can be drawn from research on representation and the political socialization that occurs as a consequence of involuntary contact with the system. We conclude with a brief discussion of directions for future research. The criminal legal system is a key force for persistent racial and class inequality. By turning attention to the politics of the criminal legal system, we forward a critical and understudied facet of American political life that intersects with all corners of the discipline.

Keywords

Criminal justicecriminal legal systemcarceral statepolitics of punishmentrepresentation
Type
Introduction
Information
Journal of Race, Ethnicity, and Politics , Volume 5 , Special Issue 3: Race and Criminal Justice , November 2020 , pp. 427 - 449
Copyright
Copyright © The Race, Ethnicity, and Politics Section of the American Political Science Association 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Armenta, Amada. 2012. “From Sheriff's Deputies to Immigration Officers: Screening Immigrant Status in A Tennessee Jail.” Law & Policy 34 (2): 191–210.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Armenta, Amada. 2017. Protect, Serve, and Deport: The Rise of Policing as Immigration Enforcement. Oakland: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Armenta, Amada, and Alvarez, Isabela. 2017. “Policing Immigrants or Policing Immigration? Understanding Local Law Enforcement Participation in Immigration Control.” Sociology Compass 11 (2): e12453.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arriaga, Felicia. 2016. “Understanding Crimmigration: Implications for Racial and Ethnic Minorities Within the United States.” Sociology Compass 10 (9): 805–12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baumgartner, Frank R., Epp, Derek A., and Shoub, Kelsey. 2018. Suspect Citizens: What 20 Million Traffic Stops Tell Us About Policing and Race. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108553599.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beckett, Katherine, and Evans, Heather. 2015. “Crimmigration at the Local Level: Criminal Justice Processes in the Shadow of Deportation.” Law & Society Review 49 (1): 241–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brayne, Sarah. 2014. “Surveillance and System Avoidance: Criminal Justice Contact and Institutional Attachment.” American Sociological Review 79 (3): 367–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, Hana E., Jones, Jennifer A., and Becker, Andrea. 2018. “The Racialization of Latino Immigrants in New Destinations: Criminality, Ascription, and Countermobilization.” RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 4 (5): 118–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burch, Traci. 2013. Trading Democracy for Justice: Criminal Convictions and the Decline of Neighborhood Political Participation. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Butler, Daniel M., and Broockman, David E.. 2011. “Do Politicians Racially Discriminate Against Constituents? A Field Experiment on State Legislators.” American Journal of Political Science 55 (3): 463–77. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5907.2011.00515.x.Google Scholar
Capps, Randy, Chishti, Muzaffar, Gelatt, Julia, Bolter, Jessica, and Ruiz Soto, Ariel G.. 2018. “Revving up the Deportation Machinery.”.Google Scholar
Carnes, Nicholas. 2013. White-Collar Government: The Hidden Role of Class in Economic Policy Making. Chicago: University Of Chicago Press. https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/W/bo16956543.html.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, Elisha, Gunderson, Anna, Jackson, Kaylyn, Zachary, Paul, Clark, Tom S., Glynn, Adam N., and Owens, Michael Leo. 2019. “Do Officer-Involved Shootings Reduce Citizen Contact with Government?” The Journal of Politics 81 (3): 1111–23.Google Scholar
Coleman, Mat, and Kocher, Austin. 2019. “Rethinking the ‘Gold Standard’ of Racial Profiling: § 287 (g), Secure Communities and Racially Discrepant Police Power.” American Behavioral Scientist 63 (9): 1185–220.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cortez, David. 2017. “Broken Mirrors: Identity, Duty, and Belonging in the Age of the New La (Tinx) Migra.”Google Scholar
Cruz Nichols, Vanessa, LeBrón, Alana MW, and Pedraza, Francisco I.. 2018. “Policy Feedback: Government Skepticism Trickling From Immigration to Matters of Health.” Policing and Race: Economic Political, and Social Dynamics 78 (3): 432–443.Google Scholar
Dawson, Michael C. 2003. Black Visions: The Roots of Contemporary African-American Political Ideologies. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Eckhouse, Laurel. N.d a. “Descriptive Representation and Political Power: Explaining Racial Inequalities in Policing.”Google Scholar
Eckhouse, Laurel. N.d b. “Everyday Risk Disparate Exposure and Racial Inequality in Police Violence.”Google Scholar
Eckhouse, Laurel. 2018. “White Riot: Race, Institutions, and the 2016 U.S. Election.” Politics, Groups, and Identities 0 (0): 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/21565503.2018.1442725.Google Scholar
Eckhouse, Laurel. 2019. “Race, Party, and Representation in Criminal Justice Politics.” The Journal of Politics 81 (3): 1143–52.Google Scholar
Epp, Charles R., Maynard-Moody, Steven, and Haider-Markel, Donald P.. 2014. Pulled Over: How Police Stops Define Race and Citizenship. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fagan, Jeffrey A., Geller, Amanda, Davies, Garth, and West, Valerie. 2010. “Street Stops and Broken Win- Dows Revisited: The Demography and Logic of Proactive Policing in A Safe and Changing City.” In Race, Ethnicity, and Policing: New and Essential Readings, eds. Rice, Stephen and White, Michael. New York: NYU Press, 309–48. https://muse.jhu.edu/book/12546.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
“Ferguson_police_department_report.Pdf.” https://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/opa/press-releases/attachments/2015/03/04/ferguson_police_department_report.pdf (Accessed June 14, 2020).Google Scholar
Flores, Rene D. 2014. “Living in the Eye of the Storm: How Did Hazleton's Restrictive Immigration Ordinance Affect Local Interethnic Relations?” American Behavioral Scientist 58 (13): 1743–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Forman, James Jr.. 2017. Locking Up Our Own: Crime and Punishment in Black America. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.Google Scholar
Frymer, Paul. 2010. Uneasy Alliances: Race and Party Competition in America. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Garip, Filiz, Gleeson, Shannon, and Hall, Matthew. 2019. “How the State Criminalizes Immigrants and to What Effect: A Multidisciplinary Account.” American Behavioral Scientist 63 (9): 1159–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garrett, Thomas A., and Wagner, Gary A.. 2009. “Red Ink in the Rearview Mirror: Local Fiscal Conditions and the Issuance of Traffic Tickets.” The Journal of Law and Economics 52 (1): 71–90. https://doi.org/10.1086/589702.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gerber, A.S., Huber, G.A., Meredith, M., Biggers, D.R. and Hendry, D.J. 2017. “Does incarceration reduce voting? Evidence about the political consequences of spending time in prison.” The Journal of Politics 79 (4): 1130–46.Google Scholar
Ghandoosh, Nazgol. 2019. “U.S. Prison Population Trends: Massive Buildup and Modest Decline.” The Sentencing Project. https://www.sentencingproject.org/publications/u-s-prison-population-trends-massive-buildup-and-modest-decline/.Google Scholar
Goldstein, Rebecca, Sances, Michael W., and You, Hye Young. 2020. “Exploitative Revenues, Law Enforcement, and the Quality of Government Service.” Urban Affairs Review 56 (1): 5–31. https://doi.org/10.1177/1078087418791775.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gottschalk, Marie. 2006. The Prison and the Gallows: The Politics of Mass Incarceration in America. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Gottschalk, Marie. 2008. “Hiding in Plain Sight: American Politics and the Carceral State.” Annual Review of Political Science 11: 235–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gottschalk, Marie. 2014. Caught. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Griffin, John D. 2014. “When and Why Minority Legislators Matter.” Annual Review of Political Science 17 (1): 327–36. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-polisci-033011-205028.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Griffin, John D., and Keane, Michael. 2006. “Descriptive Representation and the Composition of African American Turnout.” American Journal of Political Science 50 (4): 998–1012. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5907.2006.00229.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grogger, Jeffrey, and Ridgeway, Greg. 2006. “Testing for Racial Profiling in Traffic Stops From Behind A Veil of Darkness.” Journal of the American Statistical Association 101 (475): 878–87. https://doi.org/10.1198/016214506000000168.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grose, Christian R. 2011. Congress in Black and White: Race and Representation in Washington and at Home. 1 edition. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gunderson, Anna. 2020. “Representation, incorporation, and corrections spending: The counterbalancing effect of Black political incorporation.” The Journal of Race, Ethnicity and Politics 5 (3): 573–603. https://doi.org/10.1017/rep.2020.15.Google Scholar
Harris, Allison P., n.d. “Can Racial Diversity Among Judges Affect Sentencing Outcomes?.”Google Scholar
Harris, Allison P., and Sen, Maya. 2019. “Bias and Judging.” Annual Review of Political Science 22 (1): 241–59. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-polisci-051617-090650.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harris, Allison P., Ash, Elliot, and Fagan, Jeffrey. 2020. “Fiscal pressures and discriminatory policing: Evidence from traffic stops in Missouri.” The Journal of Race, Ethnicity and Politics 5 (3): 450–80. https://doi.org/10.1017/rep.2020.10.Google Scholar
Hinton, Elizabeth. 2016. From the War on Poverty to the War on Crime: The Making of Mass Incarceration in America. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Hutchings, Vincent L., and Valentino, Nicholas A.. 2004. “The Centrality of Race in American Politics.” Annual Review of Political Science 7 (1): 383–408. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.polisci.7.012003.104859.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
“Investigation of the Ferguson Police Department.” 2015. United States Department of Justice Civil Rights Division.Google Scholar
Anoll, A. and Israel-Trummel, M. 2019. “Do Felony Disenfranchisement Laws (De) Mobilize? A Case of Surrogate Participation.” The Journal of Politics 81 (4): 1523–1527.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jackson, J. M. 2019. Race, Risks, and Responses: Mapping Black Americans' Reactions to Group Threat (Doctoral Dissertation).Google Scholar
Jefferson, H. 2019. Policing Norms: Punishment and the Politics of Respectability among Black Americans (Doctoral dissertation).Google Scholar
Kanno-Youngs, Zolan, and Benner, Katie. 2020. “Trump Deploys the Full Might of Federal Law Enforcement to Crush Protests.” The New York Times, June 2, 2020, sec. U.S. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/02/us/politics/trump-law-enforcement-protests.html.Google Scholar
Knowles, John, Persico, Nicola, and Todd, Petra. 2001. “Racial Bias in Motor Vehicle Searches: Theory and Evidence.” Journal of Political Economy 109 (1): 203–29. https://doi.org/10.1086/318603.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Knox, Dean, and Mummolo, Jonathan. 2020a. “Making Inferences About Racial Disparities in Police Violence.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 117 (3): 1261–62. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1919418117.Google Scholar
Knox, Dean, Lowe, Will, and Mummolo, Jonathan. 2020b. “Administrative Records Mask Racially Biased Policing.” American Political Science Review, 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055420000039.Google Scholar
Laniyonu, Ayobami. 2018. “Police, Politics and Participation: The Effect of Police Exposure on Political Participation in the United Kingdom.” The British Journal of Criminology 58 (5): 1232–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Laniyonu, Ayobami. 2019. “The Political Consequences of Policing: Evidence From New York City.” Political Behavior 41 (2): 527–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, Hedwig, Porter, Lauren C., and Comfort, Megan. 2014. “Consequences of Family Member Incarceration: Impacts on Civic Participation and Perceptions of the Legitimacy and Fairness of Government.” The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 651 (1): 44–73.Google Scholar
Lerman, Amy, and Weaver, Vesla. 2014a. Arresting Citizenship: The Democratic Consequences of American Crime Control. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lerman, Amy E., and Weaver, Vesla. 2014b. “Staying out of Sight? Concentrated Policing and Local Political Action.” The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 651 (1): 202–19.Google Scholar
Maltby, Elizabeth. (2017) “The Political Origins of Racial Inequality.” Political Research Quarterly 70 (3): 535–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maltby, Elizabeth, Rocha, Rene R., Jones, Bradford, and Vannette, David L.. 2020. “Demographic context, mass deportation, and Latino linked fate.” The Journal of Race, Ethnicity and Politics 5 (3): 509–36. https://doi.org/10.1017/rep.2020.24.Google Scholar
Manza, Jeff, and Uggen, Christopher. 2008. Locked out: Felon Disenfranchisement and American Democracy. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Marrow, Helen B. 2020. “Hope Turned Sour: Second-Generation Incorporation and Mobility in US New Immigrant Destinations.” Ethnic and Racial Studies 43 (1): 99–118.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meissner, Doris, Kerwin, Donald M., Chishti, Muzaffar, and Bergeron, Claire. 2013 “Immigration Enforcement in the United States: The Rise of a Formidable Machinery.”Google Scholar
Menjívar, Cecilia, Simmons, William Paul, Alvord, Daniel, and Valdez, Elizabeth Salerno. 2018. “Immigration Enforcement, the Racialization of Legal Status, and Perceptions of the Police: Latinos in Chicago, Los Angeles, Houston, and Phoenix in Comparative Perspective.” Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race 15 (1): 107–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Michener, J. 2020. “Power from the Margins: Grassroots Mobilization and Urban Expansions of Civil Legal Rights.” Urban Affairs Review 56(5): 1390–1422.Google Scholar
Miller, Lisa L. 2008. The Perils of Federalism: Race, Poverty, and the Politics of Crime Control. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Moinester, Margot. 2019. “A Look to the Interior: Trends in US Immigration Removals by Criminal Conviction Type, Gender, and Region of Origin, Fiscal Years 2003-2015.” American Behavioral Scientist 63 (9): 1276–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mondak, Jeffery J., Hurwitz, Jon, Peffley, Mark, and Testa, Paul. 2017. “The Vicarious Bases of Perceived Injustice.” American Journal of Political Science 61 (4): 804–19.Google Scholar
“More than One in 100 Adults Are Behind Bars, Pew Study Finds,” 2008. http://pew.org/1Q6ZxUK (June 13, 2020).Google Scholar
Morris, Kevin. 2020. “Neighborhoods and Felony Disenfranchisement: The Case of New York City.” Urban Affairs Review, 1078087420921522.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mummolo, Jonathan. 2018a. “Militarization Fails to Enhance Police Safety or Reduce Crime but May Harm Police Reputation.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 115 (37): 9181–86. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1805161115.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mummolo, Jonathan. 2018b. “Modern Police Tactics, Police-Citizen Interactions, and the Prospects for Reform.” The Journal of Politics 80 (1): 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1086/694393.Google Scholar
Murakawa, Naomi. 2014. The First Civil Right: How Liberals Built Prison America. Studies in Postwar American Political Development. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Nguyen, Mai Thi, and Gill, Hannah. 2016. “Interior Immigration Enforcement: The Impacts of Expanding Local Law Enforcement Authority.” Urban Studies 53 (2): 302–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
“Onein100pdf.Pdf.”. https://www.pewtrusts.org/~/media/legacy/uploadedfiles/wwwpewtrustsorg/reports/sentencing_and_corrections/onein100pdf.pdf (Accessed June 13, 2020).Google Scholar
Owens, Michael Leo, and Walker, Hannah L.. (2018) “The Civic Voluntarism of ‘Custodial Citizens’: Involuntary Criminal Justice Contact, Associational Life, and Political Participation.” Perspectives on Politics 16 (4): 990–1013. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1537592718002074.Google Scholar
Pedraza, Franciso I, Cruz Nichols, Vanessa, and LeBrón, Alana MW. 2017. “Cautious Citizenship: The Deterring Effect of Immigration Issue Salience on Health Care Use and Bureaucratic Interactions among Latino US Citizens.” Journal of Health Politics, Policy and Law 42 (5): 925–60.Google ScholarPubMed
Pedraza, Francisco, and Osorio, Maricruz Ariana. 2017. “Courted and Deported.” Aztlán: A Journal of Chicano Studies 44 (2): 249–266.Google Scholar
Pedroza, Juan Manuel. 2019. “Deportation Discretion: Tiered Influence, Minority Threat, and ‘Secure Communities’ Deportations.” Policy Studies Journal 47 (3): 624–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peyton, Kyle, Sierra-Arévalo, Michael, and Rand, David G.. 2019. “A Field Experiment on Community Policing and Police Legitimacy.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 116 (40): 19894–98. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1910157116.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pierson, Emma, Simoiu, Camelia, Overgoor, Jan, Corbett-Davies, Sam, Jenson, Daniel, Shoemaker, Amy, Ramachandran, Vignesh, Barghouty, Phoebe, Phillips, Cheryl, Shroff, Ravi and Goel, Sharad 2020. “A Large-Scale Analysis of Racial Disparities in Police Stops Across the United States.” Nature Human Behaviour, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-020-0858-1.Google ScholarPubMed
Pitkin, Hanna F. 1967. The Concept of Representation. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Preuhs, Robert R. 2005. “Descriptive Representation, Legislative Leadership, and Direct Democracy: Latino Influence on English Only Laws in the States, 1984–2002.” State Politics & Policy Quarterly 5 (3): 203–24. https://doi.org/10.1177/153244000500500301.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Preuhs, Robert R. 2006. “The Conditional Effects of Minority Descriptive Representation: Black Legislators and Policy Influence in the American States.” The Journal of Politics 68 (3) : 585–99. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2508.2006.00447.x.Google Scholar
Prowse, Gwen, Weaver, Vesla M., and Meares, Tracey L.. 2019. “The State From Below: Distorted Responsiveness in Policed Communities.” Urban Affairs Review 56 (5): 1423–1471.Google Scholar
NYU Press. “Race, Ethnicity, and Policing.” https://nyupress.org/9780814776162/race-ethnicity-and-policing (Accessed June 13, 2020).Google Scholar
Rocha, Rene R, Knoll, Benjamin R, and Wrinkle, Robert D.. 2015. “Immigration Enforcement and the Redistribution of Political Trust.” The Journal of Politics 77 (4): 901–13.Google Scholar
Rojek, Jeff, Rosenfeld, Richard, and Decker, Scott. 2004. “The Influence Of Driver'S Race on Traffic Stops in Missouri.” Police Quarterly 7 (1): 126–47. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098611103260695.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Saltzstein, Grace Hall. 1989. “Black Mayors and Police Policies.” The Journal of Politics 51 (3): 525–44. https://doi.org/10.2307/2131494.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sances, Michael W., and You, Hye Young. 2017. “Who Pays for Government? Descriptive Representation and Exploitative Revenue Sources.” The Journal of Politics 79 (3): 1090–94. https://doi.org/10.1086/691354.Google Scholar
Shineman, Victoria. 2018. “Racial Animus Is Decreasing Support for the Voting Rights of Citizens with Felony Convictions.” SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3272685.Google Scholar
Shineman, Victoria. 2020. “Restoring Voting Rights: Evidence That Reversing Felony Disenfranchisement Increases Political Efficacy.” Policy Studies 41 (2–3): 131–50. https://doi.org/10.1080/01442872.2019.1694655.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shoub, Kelsey, Epp, Derek A., Baumgartner, Frank R., Christiani, Leah, and Roach, Kevin. 2020. “Race, place, and context: The persistence of race effects in traffic stop outcomes in the face of situational, demographic and political controls.” The Journal of Race, Ethnicity, and Politics 5 (3): 481–508. https://doi.org/10.1017/rep.2020.8.Google Scholar
Sobol, Neil L 2015. “Lessons Learned From Ferguson: Ending Abusive Collection of Criminal Justice Debt.” University of Maryland Law Journal of Race, Religion, Gender and Class 15: 293.Google Scholar
Soss, Joe, and Weaver, Vesla. 2017. “Police Are Our Government: Politics, Political Science, and the Policing of Race-Class Subjugated Communities.” Annual Review of Political Science 20 (1): 565–91. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-polisci-060415-093825.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Street, Alex, Jones-Correa, Michael, and Zepeda-Millán, Chris. 2017. “Political Effects of Having Undocumented Parents.” Political Research Quarterly 70 (4): 818–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stumpf, Juliet. 2006. “The the Crimmigration Crisis: Immigrants, Crime, and Sovereign Power.” Am. UL Rev 56: 367.Google Scholar
Taylor, Kirstine. 2018. “American Political Development and Black Lives Matter in the Age of Incarceration.” Politics, Groups, and Identities 6 (1): 153–61.Google Scholar
Vargas, Edward D, Sanchez, Gabriel R, and Valdez, Juan A. 2017. “Immigration Policies and Group Identity: How Immigrant Laws Affect Linked Fate among US Latino Populations.” Journal of Race, Ethnicity and Politics 2 (1): 35–62.Google Scholar
Walker, Hannah L. 2014. “Extending the Effects of the Carceral State: Proximal Contact, Political Participation, and Race.” Political Research Quarterly 67 (4): 809–22.Google Scholar
Walker, Hannah L. 2020. Mobilized by Injustice: Criminal Justice Contact, Political Participation, and Race. New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walker, Hannah, Roman, Marcel. and Barreto, Matt. 2020. “The Ripple Effect: The Political Consequences of Proximal Contact with Immigration Enforcement.” The Journal of Race, Ethnicity and Politics 5 (3): 537–72. https://doi.org/10.1017/rep.2020.9.Google Scholar
Weaver, Vesla M. 2007. “Frontlash: Race and the Development of Punitive Crime Policy.” Studies in American Political Development 21 (2): 230–65. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0898588X07000211.Google Scholar
Weaver, Vesla M., and Decker, Charles. 2014. “‘The Only Battle in the Nation's History in Which the Black Community Has Not Been Enlisted’: Black Agency, Resistance, and Alternatives to Incarceration.”Google Scholar
Weaver, Vesla M., and Lerman, Amy E.. 2010. “Political Consequences of the Carceral State.” American Political Science Review 104 (4): 817–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weaver, Vesla, Prowse, Gwen, and Piston, Spencer. 2019. “Too Much Knowledge, Too Little Power: An Assessment of Political Knowledge in Highly Policed Communities.” The Journal of Politics 81 (3): 1153–1166.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weaver, Vesla, Prowse, Gwen, and Piston, Spencer. 2020. “Withdrawing and Drawing In: Political Discourse in Policed Communities.” The Journal of Race, Ethnicity and Politics 5 (3): 604–47. https://doi.org/10.1017/rep.2019.50.Google Scholar
Western, Bruce. 2006. Punishment and Inequality in America. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
Wessels, Bernhard. 2007. Political Representation and Democracy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
White, A. 2016. “When threat mobilizes: Immigration enforcement and Latino voter turnout.” Political Behavior 38 (2): 355–382.Google Scholar
White, Ariel. 2018. “Family Matters? Voting Behavior in Households with Criminal Justice Contact.” American Political Science Review 113 (2): 607–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
White, Ariel. 2019. “Misdemeanor Disenfranchisement? The Demobilizing Effects of Brief Jail Spells on Potential Voters.” American Political Science Review 113 (2): 311–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williamson, Vanessa, Trump, Kris-Stella, and Einstein, Katherine Levine. 2018. “Black Lives Matter: Evidence That Police-Caused Deaths Predict Protest Activity.” Perspectives on Politics 16 (2): 400–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar