Hostname: page-component-745bb68f8f-mzp66 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-01-14T14:41:26.112Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

National Insecurity: Race, Racism, and Public Support for Militarized Foreign Policy in the United States (1986–2020)

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  13 January 2025

David B. Ebner*
Affiliation:
Sweet Briar College, Sweet Briar, VA, USA
*
Get access

Abstract

In this paper, I examine the factors associated with public attitudes toward foreign policy among white Americans and argue that racial attitudes play an important role. To test this hypothesis, I perform quantitative studies across four iterations of the American National Election Survey (ANES)—(1) 2012, (2) 2016, (3) 2020, and (4) the Cumulative Survey (1986–2020). While the results include white public opinion across several different areas of foreign policy across several decades of data, the findings are consistent: American foreign policy opinion among white Americans is highly racialized—meaning that their views on foreign policy are strongly associated with their views on race and racism. This study contributes to our knowledge of a relatively poorly understood phenomenon in American politics: how the American public forms their attitudes on foreign policy. Overall, I find strong evidence that racial attitudes play an important yet understudied role in the foreign policy attitudes of white Americans. This study also extends our knowledge of the role of racialization in public opinion and reminds us that while racism is one of the most central problems for U.S. domestic politics, we should also be wary of how these hierarchies of domination extend beyond our borders through its foreign relations.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2025. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of The Race, Ethnicity, and Politics Section of the American Political Science Association

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

Manuscript Accepted for Publication in the Journal of Race, Ethnicity, and Politics September 2024

References

Abascal, Maria. (2022) Latino growth and whites’ anti-black resentment: the role of racial threat and conservatism. Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race 20, 121.Google Scholar
Aldrich, John H., Christopher Gelpi, Peter Feaver, Reifler, Jason, and Sharp, Thompson. (2006) Foreign policy and the electoral connection. Annual Review of Political Science 9, 477502.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alexander, Michele G., Levin, Shana, and Henry, P. J. (2005) Image theory, social identity, and social dominance: structural characteristics and individual motives underlying international images. Political Psychology 26(1), 2745.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Almond, Gabriel Abraham. (1950) The American People and Foreign Policy. Harcourt, Brace.Google Scholar
American National Election Survey. (2019) ANES | American National Election Studies. https://electionstudies.org Google Scholar
Avdan, Nazli, and Webb, Clayton (2019) Not in my back yard: public perceptions and terrorism. Political Research Quarterly 72(1): 90103. doi: 10.1177/1065912918776118.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bacevich, Andrew. (2004) American Empire. Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Bardes, Barbara, and Oldendick, Robert. (1978) Beyond internationalism: a case for multiple dimensions in the structure of foreign policy attitudes. Social Science Quarterly; Austin, Tex. 59(3), 496508.Google Scholar
Bassin, Mark. (1991) Russia between Europe and Asia: the ideological construction of geographical space. Slavic Review 50(1), 117.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baum, Matthew, and Groeling, Tim J. (2010) War Stories: The Causes and Consequences of Public Views of War. Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Baum, Matthew A., and Potter, Philip B.K. (2008) The relationships between mass media, public opinion, and foreign policy: toward a theoretical synthesis. Annual Review of Political Science 11(1), 3965.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bernstein, Barton J. (1999) Reconsidering ‘invasion most costly’: popular-history scholarship, publishing standards, and the claim of high U.S. casualty estimates to help legitimize the atomic bombings. Peace & Change 24(2), 220248.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blauwkamp, Joan M, Rowling, Charles M, and Pettit, William. (2018) Are americans really okay with torture? The effects of message framing on public opinion. Media, War & Conflict 1750635217753655.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blumer, Herbert. (1958) Race prejudice as a sense of group position. Pacific Sociological Review 1(1), 37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bobo, Lawrence. (1997) Race, public opinion, and the social sphere. The Public Opinion Quarterly 61(1), 115.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bobo, Lawrence, and Hutchings, Vincent L. (1996) Perceptions of racial group competition: extending blumer’s theory of group position to a multiracial social context. American Sociological Review 61(6), 951.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bobo, Lawrence, Kluegel, James R., and Smith, Ryan A. (1996) laissez faire racism: the crystallization of a ‘kinder, gentler’ anti-black ideology. In Tuch, Steven A. and Martin, Jack K. (eds), Racial Attitudes in the 1990’s: Continuity and Change. Praeger, pp. 1542.Google Scholar
Bobo, Lawrence, and Kluegel, JR. (1997) Status, ideology, and dimensions of whites’ racial beliefs and attitudes: progress and stagnation. In Martin, Jack and Tuch, Steven A. (eds), Racial Attitudes in the 1990s. Bloomsbury Publishing, pp. 93120.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bobo, Lawrence D. (1999) Prejudice as group position: microfoundations of a sociological approach to racism and race relations. Journal of Social Issues 55(3), 445472.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bonilla-Silva, Eduardo. (2001) White Supremacy and Racism in the Post Civil Rights Era. Lynne Rienner Publishers.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bullock, JOHN G. (2011) Elite influence on public opinion in an informed electorate. The American Political Science Review 105(3), 496515.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bustamante, Kevin. (2024) Waltz with me: structural realism and structural racism in international politics. Security Studies. doi: 10.1080/09636412.2024.2420061.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buzan, Barry. (2004) The United States and the Great Powers: World Politics in the Twenty-First Century. Polity.Google Scholar
Búzás, Zoltán I. (2021) Racism and antiracism in the liberal international order. International Organization 75(2), 440463.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Castle, Jeremiah J., Layman, Geoffrey C., Campbell, David E., and Green, John C. (2017). Survey experiments on candidate religiosity, political attitudes, and vote choice. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 56(1): 143–61. doi: 10.1111/jssr.12311.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Citrin, Jack, Green, Donald P., Muste, Christopher, and Wong, Cara. (1997) Public opinion toward immigration reform: the role of economic motivations. The Journal of Politics 59(3), 858881.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cox, Michael. (2001) Whatever happened to american decline? International relations and the New United States hegemony. New Political Economy 6(3), 311340.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
d’Urso, Amanda Sahar, and Bonilla, Tabitha. (2023) Religion or Race? using intersectionality to examine the role of muslim identity and evaluations on belonging in the United States. Journal of Race, Ethnicity, and Politics 8(2), 202222.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Darwin, John. (2009) The Empire Project: The Rise and Fall of the British World-System, 1830–1970. Cambridge Core.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davis, Darren W., and Silver, Brian D. (2004) Civil Liberties vs. Security: public opinion in the context of the terrorist attacks on america. American Journal of Political Science 48(1), 2846.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davis, Robert C., and Hendricks, Nicole J. (2007) Immigrants and law enforcement: a comparison of native-born and foreign-born americans’ opinions of the police. International Review of Victimology 14(1), 8194. doi: 10.1177/026975800701400105.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DeConde, Alexander. (1992) Ethnicity, Race, and American Foreign Policy: A History. UPNE.Google Scholar
DeGrasse, R. W. (2016) Military Expansion, Economic Decline : Impact of Military Spending on United States Economic Performance. Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Devine, Patricia G. (1989) Stereotypes and prejudice: their automatic and controlled components. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 56(1), 518. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.56.1.5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Edwards, George C., Mitchell, William, and Welch, Reed. (1995) Explaining presidential approval: the significance of issue salience. American Journal of Political Science 39(1), 108134.Google Scholar
Eichenberg, Richard C. (2016) Gender difference in american public opinion on the use of military force, 1982–2013. International Studies Quarterly 60(1), 138148. doi: 10.1093/isq/sqv019.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Enders, Adam M., and Scott, Jamil S. (2019) The increasing racialization of american electoral politics, 1988-2016. American Politics Research 47(2), 275303. doi: 10.1177/1532673X18755654.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Espiritu, Yen Le. (2008) Asian American Women and Men: Labor, Laws, and Love. Rowman & Littlefield.Google Scholar
Fawn, Rick, and Hinnebusch, Raymond. (2006) The Iraq War Causes and Consequences. Lynne Rienner Publishers.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ford, Clay. (2015) Is R-Squared Useless? University of Virginia StatLab. https://library.virginia.edu/data/articles/is-r-squared-useless (July 19, 2024).Google Scholar
Foxworth, Raymond, and Boulding, Carew. (2022) Discrimination and resentment: examining american attitudes about native americans. Journal of Race, Ethnicity, and Politics 7(1), 936.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Freeman, Bianca. (2023) Racial hierarchy and jurisdiction in U.S. status of forces agreements: security studies: Vol 32, No 4-5. Security Studies 32(4–5), 748774.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Freeman, Bianca, Kim, D. G., and Lake, David A. (2022) Race in international relations: beyond the ‘norm against noticing. Annual Review of Political Science 25, 175196.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gilens, Martin. (1996) ‘Race Coding’ and white opposition to welfare. The American Political Science Review 90(3), 593604. doi: 10.2307/2082611.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gilens, Martin, and Page, Benjamin I. (2014) Testing theories of American Politics: elites, interest groups, and average citizens. Perspectives on Politics 12(3), 564581.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gilens, Martin, Sniderman, Paul M., and Kuklinski, James H. (1998) Affirmative action and the politics of realignment. British Journal of Political Science 28(1), 159183.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Green, Eva G. T., Staerklé, Christian, and Sears, David O. (2006) Symbolic racism and Whites’ attitudes towards punitive and preventive crime policies. Law and Human Behavior 30(4), 435454.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Green-Riley, Naima, and Leber, Andrew. (2023) Whose war is it Anyway? Explaining the Black-White gap in support for the use of force abroad. Security Studies 32(4–5), 811845.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grose, Christian R., and Oppenheimer, Bruce I. (2007) The Iraq War, partisanship, and candidate attributes: variation in partisan swing in the 2006 U.S. house elections. Legislative Studies Quarterly 32(4), 531557.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harris, Cheryl I. (1993) Whiteness as Property. Harvard Law Review 106(8), 17071791.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hemmer, Christopher, and Katzenstein, Peter J. (2002) Why Is There No NATO in Asia? collective identity, regionalism, and the origins of multilateralism. International Organization 56(3), 575607.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Henry, P. J., and Sears, David O. (2002) The Symbolic Racism 2000 Scale. Political Psychology 23(2), 253283.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hetherington, Marc, and Suhay, Elizabeth. (2011) Authoritarianism, threat, and Americans’ support for the war on terror. American Journal of Political Science 55(3), 546560.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hirschfeld, Lawrence. (1998) Race in the Making | The MIT Press.Google Scholar
Hirschfelder, Arlene, and Molin, Paulette F. (2018) Stereotyping Native Americans. Jim Crow Museum.Google Scholar
Holsti, Ole R. (1992) Public opinion and foreign policy: challenges to the almond-lippmann consensus mershon series: research programs and debates. International Studies Quarterly 36(4), 439466.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holsti, Ole R. (2004) Public Opinion and American Foreign Policy, Revised Edition. University of Michigan Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Horne, Gerald. (1999) Race from Power: U.S. foreign policy and the general crisis of ‘White Supremacy.’Diplomatic History 23(3), 437461.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Horsman, Reginald. (1981) Race and Manifest Destiny: Origins of American Racial Anglo-Saxonism. Reprint edition. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huddy, Leonie, Feldman, Stanley, Taber, Charles, and Lahav, Gallya. (2005) Threat, anxiety, and support of antiterrorism policies. American Journal of Political Science 49(3), 593608.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huff, Connor, and Kertzer, Joshua D. (2017) People Are More Likely to Describe a Violent Event as Terrorism If the Perpetrator Is Muslim and Has Policy Goals. USApp - American Politics and Policy Blog.Google Scholar
Hurwitz, Jon, and Peffley, Mark. (1987) How are Foreign policy attitudes structured? A hierarchical model. The American Political Science Review 81(4), 10991120.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hutchings, Vincent, and Valentino, Nicholas A. (2004) The centrality of race in American politics. Annual Review of Political Science 7, 383408.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Immerwahr, Daniel. (2019) How to Hide an Empire. Macmillan Press.Google Scholar
Jefferson, Hakeem, Neuner, Fabian G., and Pasek, Josh. (2021) Seeing blue in black and white: race and perceptions of officer-involved shootings. Perspectives on Politics 19(4), 11651183.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jeong, Gyung-Ho, and Quirk, Paul J. (2019) Division at the water’s edge: the polarization of foreign policy. American Politics Research 47(1), 5887.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kam, Cindy D., and Kinder, Donald R. (2007) Terror and ethnocentrism: foundations of american support for the war on terrorism. Journal of Politics 69(2), 320338.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kertzer, Joshua D., and Zeitzoff, Thomas. (2017) A Bottom-up theory of public opinion about foreign policy. American Journal of Political Science 61(3), 543558.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kim, D G. (2024) Anti-asian racism and the rise of hawkish mass opinion in China. Political Science Quarterly 139(2), 177199.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kim, Daegyeong. (2022) Anti-Asian Racism and the Racial Politics of U.S.-China Great Power Rivalry. UC San Diego.Google Scholar
Kinder, Donald R., and Kam, Cindy D. (2010) Us Against Them: Ethnocentric Foundations of American Opinion. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Kinder, Donald R., and Sanders, Lynn M. (1996) Divided by Color: Racial Politics and Democratic Ideals. Chicago, IL, US: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Kinder, Donald R., and Winter, Nicholas. (2001) Exploring the racial divide: blacks, whites, and opinion on national policy. American Journal of Political Science 45(2), 439.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
King, Desmond S., and Smith, Rogers M. (2005) Racial orders in American political development. The American Political Science Review 99(1), 7592.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kipling, Rudyard. (1899) The White Man’s Burden: A Poem. New York: Doubleday and McClure Co.Google Scholar
Klein, Christina. (2003) Cold War Orientalism: Asia in the Middlebrow Imagination, 1945-1961.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Konitzer, Tobias B., Shanto Iyengar, Nicholas A. Valentino, Stuart Soroka, and Duch, Raymond M. (2018) Ethnocentrism versus group-specific stereotyping in immigration opinion: cross-national evidence on the distinctiveness of immigrant groups. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 124. doi: 10.1080/1369183X.2018.1431109.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krenn, Michael L. (1999) The Impact of Race on U.S. Foreign Policy: A Reader. Taylor & Francis.Google Scholar
Kull, Steven, Ramsay, Clay, and Lewis, Evan. (2003) Misperceptions, the media, and the Iraq war. Political Science Quarterly 118(4), 569598.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kushi, Sidita. (2024) Selective humanitarians: how region and conflict perception drive military interventions in intrastate crises. International Relations 38(2), 216255.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lajevardi, Nazita, and Oskooii, Kassra A. R. (2018) Old-fashioned racism, contemporary islamophobia, and the isolation of muslim americans in the age of trump. Journal of Race, Ethnicity and Politics 3(1), 112152.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lawless, Jennifer L. (2004) Women, war, and winning elections: gender stereotyping in the post-september 11th Era. Political Research Quarterly 57(3), 479490.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levy, Morris, and Wright, Matthew. (2020) Immigration and the American Ethos. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Linenthal, Edward T., and Engelhardt, Tom, (eds.) (1996) History Wars: The Enola Gay and Other Battles for the American Past. 1st edition. New York: Holt Paperbacks.Google Scholar
Lippmann, Walter. (1946) Public Opinion. Transaction Publishers.Google Scholar
Lipsitz, George. (2006) The Possessive Investment in Whiteness: How White People Profit from Identity Politics, Revised and Expanded Edition. Temple University Press.Google Scholar
Lizotte, Mary-Kate. 2017. Gender differences in support for torture. Journal of Conflict Resolution 61(4), 772787.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lutz, Catherine. (2002) Making war at home in the United States: militarization and the current crisis. American Anthropologist 104(3), 723735.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lutz, Catherine. (2009) The Bases of Empire: The Global Struggle Against U.S. Military Posts. NYU Press.Google Scholar
Maass, Richard W. (2020) The Picky Eagle: How Democracy and Xenophobia Limited U.S. Territorial Expansion. Cornell University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Malamud, Ofer, and Wozniak, Abigail. (2012) The impact of college on migration evidence from the vietnam generation. Journal of Human Resources 47(4), 913950.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Markus, Gregory B., and Converse, Philip E. (1979) A dynamic simultaneous equation model of electoral choice. American Political Science Review 73(4), 10551070.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marsh, Wayde Z.C. (2021) Putting US First: how outgroup hostilities and defense of the status quo motivate white evangelical affect toward candidates in U.S. Elections 2004 to 2016. American Politics Research 49(5), 534547.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Masuoka, Natalie, and Junn, Jane. (2013) The Politics of Belonging. University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCleary, Daniel F., Nalls, Meagan L., and Williams, Robert L. (2009) Types of patriotism as primary predictors of continuing support for the Iraq War. Journal of Political and Military Sociology; DeKalb 37(1), 77-0_4.Google Scholar
Mills, Charles W. 1997. The Racial Contract. Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Modell, John, and Haggerty, Timothy. (1991) The social impact of war. Annual Review of Sociology 17(1), 205224.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mutz, Diana C. (2018) Status threat, not economic hardship, explains the 2016 presidential vote. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 115(19), E433039.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Neumann, Iver B. (1998) Russia as Europe’s other. Journal of Area Studies 6, 2673.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nincic, Miroslav, and Ramos, Jennifer M. (2010) Ideological structure and foreign policy Preferences. Journal of Political Ideologies 15(2), 119141.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Okihiro, Gary Y. (2014) Margins and Mainstreams: Asians in American History and Culture. University of Washington Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Omi, Michael, and Winant, Howard. (2014) Racial Formation in the United States. Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Page, Benjamin I., and Bouton, Marshall M. (2006) The Foreign Policy Disconnect: What Americans Want from Our Leaders but Don’t Get. New edition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Page, Benjamin I. I., and Shapiro, Robert Y. (1992) The Rational Public: Fifty Years of Trends in Americans’ Policy Preferences. 1 edition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parker, Christopher S., and Barreto, Matthew. (2013) Change They Can’t Believe In. Princeton University Press. https://press.princeton.edu/titles/9954.html (July 15, 2018).Google Scholar
Parker, Christopher Sebastian, and Towler, Christopher C. (2019) Race and authoritarianism in American Politics. Annual Review of Political Science 22, 503519.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pratto, Felicia, Liu, James H., Levin, Shana, Sidanius, Jim, Shih, Margaret, Bachrach, Hagit, and Hegarty, Peter. (2000) Social dominance orientation and the legitimization of inequality across cultures. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 31(3), 369409.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pratto, Felicia, Stallworth, Lisa M., and Sidanius, Jim. (1997) The gender gap: differences in political attitudes and social dominance orientation. British Journal of Social Psychology 36(1), 4968.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ralston, Robert. (2023) American decline and anti-asian american sentiment. Politics, Groups, and Identities, 110. doi: 10.1080/21565503.2023.2224767.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ramirez, Mark D., and Peterson, David A. M. (2020) Ignored Racism: White Animus Toward Latinos. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reyna, Christine, Henry, P. J., Korfmacher, William, and Tucker, Amanda. (2006) Examining the principles in principled conservatism: the role of responsibility stereotypes as cues for deservingness in racial policy decisions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 90(1), 109128.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosenau, James N., Earnest, David C., Ferguson, Yale H., and Holsti, Ole R. (2006) On the Cutting Edge of Globalization: An Inquiry Into American Elites. Rowman & Littlefield.Google Scholar
Sibley, Chris G., Robertson, Andrew, and Wilson, Marc S. (2006) Social dominance orientation and right-wing authoritarianism: additive and interactive effects. Political Psychology 27(5), 755768.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sides, John, Tesler, Michael, and Vavreck, Lynn. (2018) Identity Crisis: The 2016 Presidential Campaign and the Battle for the Meaning of America. Princeton: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Singh, Nikhil Pal, (ed.) (2019) Race and America’s Long War. University of California.Google Scholar
Sobel, Richard. (2001)The Impact of Public Opinion on U.S. Foreign Policy since Vietnam. 1 edition. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Terman, Rochelle. (2017) Islamophobia and media portrayals of muslim women: a computational text analysis of US news coverage. International Studies Quarterly, 61(3): 489502. doi: 10.1093/isq/sqx051.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tesler, Michael. (2016) Post-Racial or Most-Racial?: Race and Politics in the Obama Era, University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Toft, Monica Duffy, and Kushi, Sidita. (2023) Dying by the Sword: The Militarization of US Foreign Policy, Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Turse, Nick. (2017) American Special Operations Forces Are Deployed to 70 Percent of the World’s Countries. The Nation. Google Scholar
Valentino, Nicholas A., and Sears, David O. (2005) Old times there are not forgotten: race and partisan realignment in the contemporary south. American Journal of Political Science 49(3), 672688.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Virtanen, Simo V., and Huddy, Leonie. (1998) Old-fashioned racism and new forms of racial prejudice. The Journal of Politics 60(2), 311332.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weaver, Vesla M., and Prowse, Gwen. (2020) Racial authoritarianism in U.S. Democracy. Science 369(6508), 11761178.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
White, Ismail K. (2007) When race matters and when it doesn’t: racial group differences in response to racial cues. American Political Science Review 101(2), 339354.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zakrisson, Ingrid. (2005) Construction of a short version of the right-wing authoritarianism (RWA) Scale. Personality and Individual Differences 39(5), 863872. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2005.02.026.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zaller, John R. (1992) The Nature and Origins of Mass Opinion by John R. Zaller. Cambridge Core.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Supplementary material: File

Ebner supplementary material

Ebner supplementary material
Download Ebner supplementary material(File)
File 523.1 KB