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The Origins of Confucianism as an Organized Religion in Java, 1900–1923

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 August 2009

Charles A. Coppel
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Extract

Singularly little scholarly work has been devoted to the religious life of the Chinese of Southeast Asia. This is particularly true of the Indonesian Chinese. The only major work on Chinese religion in Indonesia to appear in decades is Les Chinois de Jakarta: Temples et Vie Collective. The unique and astonishing transformation of Confucianism into an organized religion as practised today under the auspices of MATAKIN (Majelis Tinggi Agama Khonghucu Indonesia — the Supreme Council for the Confucian Religion in Indonesia) has so far only been discussed in two short essays.

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Articles
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Journal of Southeast Asian Studies , Volume 12 , Issue 1 , March 1981 , pp. 179 - 196
Copyright
Copyright © The National University of Singapore 1981

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References

1 Salmon, Claudine and Lombard, Denys, Les Chinois de Jakarta: Temples et Vie Collective [The Chinese of Jakarta: temples and collective life] (Paris, 1977)Google Scholar.

2 Suryadinata, Leo, “Confucianism in Indonesia: Past and Present”, Southeast Asia 3, no. 3 (Spring 1974):881–903Google Scholar [also in Suryadinata, Leo, The Chinese Minority in Indonesia: Seven Papers (Singapore, 1978), pp. 33–62Google Scholar]; and Coppel, Charles A., “Contemporary Confucianism in Indonesia”, in Proceedings of the Seventh IAHA Conference held at Bangkok, 22–26 August 1977, vol. 2 (Bangkok, 1979), pp. 739–57Google Scholar.

3 The English translation of Khong Kauw Hwee as “Confucian Religion Society” is awkward because it takes one side in a debate which went on among its members for decades. But the same is true, on the other side, if one translates it as “The Confucian Society” (see Suryadinata, op. cit.).

4 Department van Economische Zaken, Volkstelling 1930, VII (Landsdrukkerij, Batavia, 1935), pp.84–86Google Scholar.

5 Coppel, Charles A., “Mapping the Pernahakan Chinese in Indonesia”, Papers on Far Eastern History 8 (09 1973): 143–67Google Scholar.

6 Lombard-Salmon, Claudine, “Aux origines de la littérature sino-malaise: Un sjair publicitaire de 1886”, Archipel 8 (1974):155–86CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Lombard-Salmon, Claudine and Lombard, Denys, “Les traductions de romans chinois en malais (1880–1930), in Littératures contemporaries de l'Asie du Sud-est, ed. Lafont, P.B. and Lombard, D. (Paris, 1974), pp. 183–201Google Scholar. On the corresponding development in Malaya and Singapore, see Lombard-Salmon, Claudine, “La littérature en malais romanisé des Chinois de Malaisie, première enquête”, Archipel 14 (1977):79–109CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

7 Hok, Lie Kim, Hikajat Khonghoetjoe. Ditjeritaken di da lam Bahasa Melajoe (Batavia, 1897)Google Scholar.

8 Ean, Njio Tjoen, Taij Hak (Ambon, c. 1897)Google Scholar; Ean, Njio Tjoen, Tiong Iong atau Kitab Jang Kadoewah deri pada Kitab-kitab Soetji, deri Orang Tjina Jang di Tingalkan oleh Nabi Kong Hoe Tjoe (Confucius) dan Anak-anak Moeridnjo, ija itoe Soe Sie Pek Boen atau Ampat Kitab-kitab deri pada Ilmoe Hikmat Jang Sanoenoh, dan deri pada Kaperentahan Negerij di Benoea Tjina; Jang Mana Bergoena Sekalij pada Orang-orang Tjina Akan Mengatahoeij Agamanja (Ambon, 1898)Google Scholar; Ean, Njio Tjoen, Siang Loen (Hak Djie) atawa Kitab Jang ka Tiga deri pada Kitab-kitab Soetji deri Orang-orang Tjina (Ambon, 1899)Google Scholar. I am indebted to Dr Salmon for these references. It should be noted that the full title of the translation of the Tiong long (Chung-yung) speaks of the usefulness of the Soe Sie (Four Books) for the Chinese in knowing their “religion” (agama).

9 Somers, Mary F.A., “Peranakan Chinese Politics in Indonesia” (Ph.D. diss., Cornell University, 1965), p. 48Google Scholar.

10 Interview, 14 Dec. 1977.

11 For a Minangkabau description of this style of learning the Quran, see Radjab, Muhamad, Semasa Ketjil Dikampung, 1913–1928 (Djakarta, 1950), p. 50Google Scholar.

12 van der Veur, Paul W., Education and Social Change in Colonial Indonesia (I) (Athens, Ohio, 1969), p. 11Google Scholar. For a general discussion of Chinese education in Indonesia, see Suryadinata, Leo “Indonesian Chinese Education: Past and Present”, Indonesia 14 (10 1972):49–71CrossRefGoogle Scholar [also in Suryadinata, , The Chinese Minority in Indonesia], pp. 1–32Google Scholar.

13 For the mission schools, see Soei, Tio Ie, Lie Kimhok (1853–1912) (Bandung, 1958), ch. 4Google Scholar.

14 Ibid., p. 15; see also Coppel, Charles, “The Chinese Minority: Politics or Culture?” People and Society in Indonesia: A Biographical Approach, by L.Y. Andaya, C. Coppel, and Y. Suzuki (Clayton, Victoria, 1977), pp. 12–30Google Scholar.

15 Hsiao, Kung-chuan, A Modern China and u New World: K'ang Yu-wei, Reformer and Utopian, 1858–1927 (Seattle and London, 1975), pp. 44–45, 120Google Scholar; Tset-sung, Chow, “The Anti-Confucian Movement in Early Republican China”, in The Confucian Persuasion, ed. Wright, Arthur F. (Stanford, 1960), p. 290Google Scholar; and see the reference in footnote 16.

16 Ching-hwang, Yen, “The Confucian Revival Movement in Singapore and Malaya, 1899–1911”, Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 7, no. 1 (03 1976):33–57CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

17 Tiong, Tan Ging and Siang, Yoe Tjai, Kitab Tai Hak — Tiong Iong Disalin dalem Bahasa Melajoe (Soekabumi, 1900), p. 4Google Scholar.

18 Ibid., pp. 6–9.

19 Lan, Nio Joe, Riwajat 40 Taon dari Tiong Hoa Hwe Koan — Batavia (1900–1939) (Batavia, 1940), p. 7Google Scholar.

20 Li Po (Sukabumi), 11 May 1901Google Scholar.

21 One of the central themes in Coppel, “The Chinese Minority” was the thesis that Western scholars on the Indonesian Chinese, especially those from English-speaking countries, had concentrated excessively on politics. An example in the present context is Williams, Lea E., Overseas Chinese Nationalism: The Genesis of the Pan-Chinese Movement in Indonesia, 1900–1916 (Glencoe, 1960). p. 54Google Scholar: “To dignify their nationalism with a cover of antiquity, to conceal its Western inspiration, and to put forward a respected and familiar symbol, the Chinese of Netherlands India, though not fully conscious of their motivations, resurrected Confucius.”

22 Hoay, Kwee Tek, “Lezing tentang Khong Kauw: Doctrine of Rectification atawa Tjeng Too”, Sam KauwGwat Po 1, no. 2 (11 1934):26–27Google Scholar [emphasis in original].

23 The full text of the THHK-Batavia statement on Chinese religion (agama Tjina) is reproduced in Nio Joe Lan, op. cit., App. F, pp. 213—18b; a rather different summary of it appears in Suryadinata, , “Confucianism in Indonesia”, pp. 885–86Google Scholar.

24 Hoay, Kwee Tek, The Origins of the Modern Chinese Movement in Indonesia, trans, and ed. Williams, Lea E. (Ithaca, N.Y., 1969), ch. 5Google Scholar. The later, expanded version of the THHK statement on funeral practices also appears in Nio Joe Lan, op. cit., App. B., pp. 204–5.

25 Ibid., ch. 4.(I have, at one point, followed the translation of Dr Suryadinata in a personal communication rather than that of Professor Williams.) There is a charming souvenir of K'ang Yu-wei's stay with the THHK leaders in Batavia in 1903 in a photograph of him with the first female students at the THHK school: see Nio Joe Lan, op. cit., p. 305. He is also pictured with the THHK committee, ibid., p. 290. An undated booklet on Kang Yu-wei's discussions with the Chinese community in Bogor by Tan Tjhan Hie contains no reference to Confucianism; the subject matter is politico-economic. It appears that the booklet must have been published after 1910 (from a reference to Sin Po press in an advertisement at the back); Hie, Tan Tjhan, Pembitjaraädn-pembitjaraännja Losianseng Khong Yoe WiJang Ada Bergoena Besar Bagi Sekalian Orang Tionghoa (Batavia, n.d.)Google Scholar.

26 Kwee., , Modern Chinese Movement, p. 56Google Scholar; Nio Joe Lan, op. cit., App. D, pp. 208–208b.

27 Tio le Soei, op. cit., pp. 133–41; Tiemersma, L., “Zendingsarbeid Onder de Chineezen op Java en Madoera”, De Macedoniër 23 (1919):33–41, 65–73, 102–13Google Scholar; Bliek, A.J., “Een Nieuwe Confucianistische Beweging”, De Opwekker (1923), pp. 380–90, 414–25Google Scholar.

28 Tan Ging Tiong and Yoe Tjai Siang, op. cit., pp. 104–32. The Soekabumische Snelpersdrukkerij did not have a printing press with Chinese characters. Before Drukkerij, Tjoa Tjoe Koan's Nieuwe commenced publication of Ik Po in Solo in 1904Google Scholar, the only press in Java with Chinese characters may have been Albrecht & Co. in Batavia.

29 Li Po, second introductory number, 1901Google Scholar.

30 See footnote 7 above; [Khong Kauw Hwee Soerabaia), Khong Tjoe Tji Soe Tjek atawa Riwajainja Nabi Khong Hoe Tjoe. Diloelis sedari Dilahirken di Boekil NI SAN sampe pada Mangkatnja (michradnja) (Kediri, 1928)Google Scholar; Hoay, Kwee Tek, Hikajat Penghidoepan dan Peladjarannja Nabi Khong Hoe Tjoe (Batavia, 1934)Google Scholar; Hoay, Kwee Tek, Kabesarannja Khong Hoe Tjoe (Confucius) (Tjitjoeroeg, 1937)Google Scholar; Hoay, Kwee Tek, Khong Tjoe Sabagi Manoesia dan Sabagi Goeroe Menoeroet Pemandangan dari Saorang Japan (Tjitjoeroeg, 1940)Google Scholar.

31 Tan, G.T., Kitab Tay-Hak dan Tiong-Yong. Doewa Kitab Jang Moeat Poko-dasar dari Peladjaranja Nabi Khong Hoe Tjoe (Soerabaia, 1935)Google Scholar; idem, Kitab Soe Sie Bagian Siang-Loen Warisan dari Ilmoe Peladjaranja Nabi Khong Hoe Tjoe (Soerabaia, 1935); idem, Kitab Soe Sie Bagian Hee Loen Warisan dari Ilmoe Peladjaranja Nabi Khong Hoe Tjoe (Soerabaia, 1935); idem, Kitab Bing Tjoe Sebagian dari Itoe Soe Sie (4 Kitab) Jang Terkenal Moeat Oedjar-oedjarnja Rasoel Bing Tjoe (Mencius) Berdasar atas Peladjaranja Nabi Khong Hoe Tjoe (Soerabaia, 1936).

32 Footnotes 17 and 31 above; Wan, Tjia Tjwan, Salman Kitab Tay Hak Kitab ka I oenioek Confucianism, 2nd printing (Kediri, 1920)Google Scholar, Hie, Kwik Hong and Hing, Tjioe Tik, Tae Hak di Salin Kedalem Bahasa Melajoe (Solo, n.d.)Google Scholar; Sia, Tjia Tjiep Ling, Salinan Kitab Tiong Jong Kitab ke II oentoek Confudanisme, 2nd printing (Kediri, 1932)Google Scholar; Djwan, Tan Soe, Kegaiban Jang Tersemboeni didalem Kitab Tay Hak (Kitab ke I. dari Peladjaran Khong Kauw) (Kediri, 1935)Google Scholar; Djwan, Tan Soe, Kitab Tiong Jong Kitab Kebatinan Jang ka II. dari Peladjaran Khong Kauw (Kediri, 1938)Google Scholar. Dr Salmon has also supplied me with the following reference: Ho, Tan Gin, Tģeaij-hēak di Sertai Boenihja dan Sweg (-nja) Masing-masing Hoeroef Tjina Pake Aksara Blanda dengan Berikoet Katerangan dalem Bahasa Melajoe (Soekabumi, 1905)Google Scholar.

33 Footnote 29 above; Sing, Tan Boen, Kitab Hauw King Tersalin dalem Bahasa Melajoe Renda (Kediri, 1921)Google Scholar; Kiong, Auw Ing, Khong Hak Cwan Lie It “Hauw” Poko dari Pladjarannja Nabi Khong Tjoeka Satoe tentang “Berbakti” (Solo, 1938)Google Scholar.

34 Kartasoera, Lid Khong Kauw Hwee, Kitab “Khong Kauw” Goena Peladjaran Anak-anak (Kediri, 1935)Google Scholar; Kiong, Auw Ing. Kitab Pladjaran Khong Kauw, 2 vols. (Solo, 1935)Google Scholar.

35 Sing, Tan Boen, Pemandangan dan Pengoendjoek Djalan Bedirinja Roema-tangga aken Goena Pemoeda-pemoeda Tionghóa (Peringetan Berdirinja Ken-ting dari Penoelis, 1890–1940) (Soerabaia, 1940)Google Scholar; Kiong, Auw Ing, Kouw Kiem Tie Ke Kik Gan atawa Pitoetoer-Pitoetoer Baek dari Orang-orang di Djeman Koeno dan di Djeman sekarang tentang Mangatoer Roemah-tangga (Solo, 1940)Google Scholar.

36 Sing, Tan Boen, Tjeng Too — Perdjalanan Jang Bener bagi Kewadjiban Manoesia (Batavia, 1931?)Google Scholar; Sing, Tan Boen, Tjeng Too atawa Perjalanan Jang Menoedjoe pada Kebeneran bagi Kwadjiban Manoesia, 2nd ed. (Batavia, 1936)Google Scholar.

37 Hoay, Kwee Tek, Sifatnja Satoe Koentjoe — Satoe Hikajat dari Djeman Tjhing Menoetoerken Pengorbanan dari Censor Wu Koo Tu (Gouw Kho Tok) Berikoet Lezing dari Toean Tan Boen Sing (Batavia, 1933)Google Scholar. Another interesting publication is a primer for learning Chinese which has the text in Chinese characters, Hokkien romanization, and Malay translation, the text consisting of classic moral admonitions: Hwee Solo, Leden Khong Kauw, Sik Si Hian Boen Tersalin dalem Bahasa Melajoe, Pake Hoeroef Tiong Hwa, dan di Artiken dalem Bahasa Hok Kian (Tjiang Tjioe) dengen hoeroef Latijn, Jang Banjak Terpake di Indonesia (Solo, 1929)Google Scholar.

38 Selfmade, H.T.H., Kitabnja Nabie Khong Hoe Tjoe Jang Pertama Bemama Soe Sie Siang Loen (Semarang, 1910)Google Scholar. Other versions of this part of the Analects include Hing, Tjioe Tik and Hok, Tio Tjing, Kitab Siang Loen deel I Afdeeling Hak Dji Te It Tersalin Bahasa Melajoe (Solo, 1925)Google Scholar; Kiong, Auw Ing, Kitab “Loen Gie” Bagian atas (Siang Loen) (Solo, 1936?)Google Scholar; and see footnote 31 above.

39 E.g., Tan Boen Sing, Kitab Hauw King (footnote 33 above); Tjia Tjwan Wan, Salinan Kitab Tay Hak (footnote 32 above).

40 See footnote 33 above.

41 Boen, Tan Hong, Orang-orang Tionghoa Jang Terkemoeka di Java (Who's Who) (Solo, 1935), p.207Google Scholar.

42 Ibid., pp. 71–72. This is not the same G.T. Tan referred to in footnote 31 above.

43 Encyclopaedie van Nederlandsch-Indië, vol. 3 (The Hague and Leiden, 1919), p. 815Google Scholar.

44 Suryadinata, , “Indonesian Chinese Education”, p. 54Google Scholar.

45 Ibid., p. 55.

46 Williams, op. cit.; Suryadinata, Leo, Peranakan Chinese Politics in Java, 1917–42 (Singapore, 1976), ch. 1Google Scholar.

47 Williams, op. cit., ch, 4. The Javanese priyayi equivalent of the officers, the Pangreh Praja, was under similar challenge from the emerging Javanese intelligentsia; see Sutherland, Heather, The Making of a Bureaucratic Elite: The Colonial Transformation of the Javanese Priyayi (Singapore, 1979), esp. ch. 5Google Scholar.

48 Hie, Tan Tjhan, “Pakoempoelan Tiong Hoa Hwir Koan”, Li Po, 3rd inlroductory number, 1901Google Scholar.

49 The links between Confucianism and late Ch'ing educational reforms are discussed in Cameron, Meribeth E., The Reform Movement in China, 1898–1912 (Stanford, 1931), pp. 71–75Google Scholar. See also Chow, op. cit., pp. 290ff.; Yen Ching-hwang, op. cit., pp. 34–35; and Yu-lan, Fung, A Short History of Chinese Philosophy, ed. Bodde, D. (New York and London, 1966), p. 325Google Scholar.

50 Tse-tung, Chow, The May Fourth Movement (Cambridge, Mass., 1960), ch. 12Google Scholar; Hsiao, op. cit., pp. 126ff.

51 Djip Tek Tji Boen, or Pemimpin ka Djalan Kabedikan, commenced publication in about 1922 and continued until the Japanese occupation in 1942.

52 [Khong Kauw Hwee Soerabaia], Khong Tjoe Tji Soe Tjek (see footnote 30 above).

53 See footnote 31 above.

54 The first number of Khong Kauw Goat Po appeared in Dec. 1923. (This monthly should be distinguished from its successor, the Khong Kauw Gwat Po, the organ of the Khong Kauw Hwee Solo, which commenced publication in 1926.)

55 The history of the Theosophical Societies in Java is a subject which deserves detailed investigation in its own right, and it should throw light on a variety of religious and political developments in the 20th century. Details of membership of the Solo Lodge in 1905 come from Lie Djong Hian, “Riwayat Loge Theosofi Solo” (unpublished MS, Solo, 1977), p. 8; details of founders of the Khong Kauw Hwee Solo come from Kiong, Auw Ing, “Khong Kauw Hwee Solo Sepandjang Tiga Puluh Lima Tahun”, Buku Peringatan Ulang Tahun Ke 35 (Solo, 1953), p. 21Google Scholar.

56 Ling, Tjia Tjiep, “Djangan Bikin Khong Kauw Djadi ‘Tjap Tjhay Theng’”, Pembangoen Kebedjikan (Bok Tok Gwat Khan), 74 (03 1940), pp. 20–22Google Scholar.

57 “Statuten Khong Kauw Tjong Hwee Bandoeng”, Khong Kauw Goat Po 6 (4 05 1924):20–21Google Scholar.

58 Sin Po Wekelijksche-editie (Khong-Kauw-Hwee-Nummer) 3 (21 04 1923)Google Scholar.

59 Ling, Tjia Tjiep, “Khong Kauw Doeloe dan Sedarang”, Siauw Bok Tok Gwat Khan 3 (30 09 1941):21ffGoogle Scholar.

60 Tjiang, Tan Hwan, Kapentingannja Khong Kauw Hwee Boeal Bangsa Tionghoa (Bandoeng, 1923)Google Scholar. See also Bliek, op. cit. (footnote 27 above) for a summary of both sides of the debate.

61 Officieel Verslag dari Conferentie Khong Kauw Tjong Hwee di Bandoeng (Bandoeng, 1924)Google Scholar; Liang, Tjoekat, Perobahan Besar Tentang Adat Istiadat Bangsa Tionghoa Jang Soeda Dipoeloesken dalem Congres “Khong Kauw Hwe” di Bandoeng pada dd. 25 dan 26 September 1924 dan Ada Brikoet Djoega Riwajat Hari Raja Bangsa Tionghoa Serta Koetipan Atoeran Jang Baroe dari Burgerlijke Stand Boeat Bangsa Tionghoa dengen Burgerlijke Wetboek Saperloenja (Semarang, 1925)Google Scholar. Even this, it seems, did not satisfy the needs of everyone: see L.T.Y., , Oepatjara Hoo-Soe dan Song-Soe (Pernikahan dan Kamatian) Menoeroet Pikiran dari Saorang Khong Kauw oentoek Digoenaken oleh Pendoedoek Tionghoa di Indonesia Jang Masih Soeka Perhatiken Adat-lembaga dari Bangsa Sendiri (Tjitjoeroeg,1939)Google Scholar.

62 Khong Kauw Goal Po.

63 Suryadinata, , “Confucianism in Indonesia”, pp. 891–95Google Scholar.

64 Coppel, “Contemporary Confucianism in Indonesia”.

65 Howell, Julia Day, “Modernizing Religious Reform and the Far Eastern Religions in Twentieth-Century Indonesia”, in Spectrum: Essays Presented to Sutan Takdir Alisjahbana on His Seventieth Birthday, ed. Udin, S. (Jakarta, 1978)Google Scholar; Geertz, C., “‘Internal Conversion’ in Contemporary Bali”, in Malayan and Indonesian Studies: Essays Presented to Sir Richard Winstedt, ed. Bastin, J. and vink, R. Rool (Oxford, 1964)Google Scholar.

66 Howell, op. cit.