Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-dk4vv Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-28T21:41:02.580Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Executive Function in Children with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: The NIH EXAMINER Battery

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  08 October 2013

Jane E. Schreiber ,
Katherine L. Possin ,
Jonathan M. Girard  and
Celiane Rey-Casserly
Jane E. Schreiber
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee
Katherine L. Possin
Affiliation:
Memory and Aging Center, University of California, San Francisco, California
Jonathan M. Girard
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts
Celiane Rey-Casserly*
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts
*
Correspondence and reprint requests to: Celiane Rey-Casserly, Department of Psychiatry, Boston Children's Hospital, 300 Longwood Avenue, Boston, Massachusetts 02115. E-mail: celiane.rey-casserly@childrens.harvard.edu
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Theories of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) increasingly highlight the role of neuropsychological impairment in ADHD; however, a consistent and identifiable pattern of performance on tests is not well established. The National Institutes of Health (NIH) Executive Abilities: Measures and Instruments for Neurobehavioral Evaluation and Research (EXAMINER) battery provides measures of common variance across multiple executive function tests within specific domains and was used to characterize which executive functions are most affected in children with ADHD. Thirty-two children (24 male), ages 8–15 years (M = 12.02; SD = 2.29), diagnosed with ADHD and no comorbid disorder completed the NIH EXAMINER battery. Sixty age and gender matched healthy controls were chosen from a database of participants enrolled in the NIH EXAMINER multi-site study. Children with ADHD performed worse on the working memory score compared with the controls. No differences were found on the cognitive control or fluency scores. For children with ADHD, poorer working memory performance predicted parent report of child learning problems. Cognitive control and fluency scores did not predict learning problems. In summary, working memory emerges as a primary impairment in children with ADHD who have no comorbid disorders. Furthermore, working memory weaknesses may underlie the academic problems often seen in children with ADHD. (JINS, 2013, 19, 1–11)

Keywords

Executive functionADHDWorking memoryNIH EXAMINERLearning problemsChildren
Type
Special Series
Information
Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society , Volume 20 , Issue 1 , January 2014 , pp. 41 - 51
Copyright
Copyright © The International Neuropsychological Society 2013 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Ackerman, P.L., Beier, M.E., Boyle, M.O. (2005). Working memory and intelligence: The same or different constructs? Psychological Bulletin, 131(1), 30–60. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.131.1.30 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Akinbami, L.J., Liu, X., Pastor, P.N., Reuben, C.A. (2011). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder among children aged 5–17 years in the United States, 1998–2009. NCHS Data Brief, 70, 1–8. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/databriefs.htm Google Scholar
Alderson, R.M., Rapport, M.D., Kofler, M.J. (2007). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and behavioral inhibition: A meta-analytic review of the stop-signal paradigm. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35(5), 745–758. doi:10.1007/s10802-007-9131-6 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alloway, T.P., Alloway, R.G. (2010). Investigating the predictive roles of working memory and IQ in academic attainment. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 106(1), 20–29. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2009.11.003 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alloway, T.P., Elliott, J., Place, M. (2010). Investigating the relationship between attention and working memory in clinical and community samples. Child Neuropsychology, 16(3), 242–254. doi:10.1080/09297040903559655 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alloway, T.P., Gathercole, S.E., Elliott, J. (2010). Examining the link between working memory behavior and academic attainment in children with ADHD. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 52(7), 632–636. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8749.2009.0360.x CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed. Text rev.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar
Anderson, V.A., Anderson, P., Northam, E., Jacobs, R., Catroppa, C. (2001). Development of executive functions through late childhood and adolescence in an Australian sample. Developmental Neuropsychology, 20(1), 385–406. doi:10.1207/S15326942DN2001_5 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Angold, A., Costello, E.J., Erkanli, A. (1999). Comorbidity. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 40(1), 57–87. Retrieved from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1111/(ISSN)1469-7610/issues CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arnsten, A.F. (2009). Toward a new understanding of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder pathophysiology: An important role for prefrontal cortex dysfunction. CNS Drugs, 23(Suppl. 1), 33–41. doi:10.2165/00023210-200923000-00005 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arnsten, A.F., Li, B.M. (2005). Neurobiology of executive functions: Catecholamine influences on prefrontal cortical functions. Biological Psychiatry, 57(11), 1377–1384. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.08.019 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baddeley, A. (2003). Working memory: Looking back and looking forward. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 4(10), 829–839. doi:10.1038/nrn1201 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baddeley, A. (2010). Working memory. Current Biology, 20(4), R136–R140. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2009.12.014 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barkley, R.A. (1997). Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions: Constructing a unifying theory of ADHD. Psychological Bulletin, 121(1), 65–94.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berger, A., Posner, M.I. (2000). Pathologies of brain attentional networks. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 24(1), 3–5. Retrieved from http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0149763499000469 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bowers, A.J. (2011). What's in a grade? The multidimensional nature of what teacher-assigned grades assess in high school. Educational Research and Evaluation, 17(3), 141–159. doi:10.1080/13803611.2011.597112 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Breslau, J., Miller, E., Breslau, N., Bohnert, K., Lucia, V., Schweitzer, J. (2009). The impact of early behavior disturbances on academic achievement in high school. Pediatrics, 123(6), 1472–1476. doi:10.1542/peds.2008-1406 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brocki, K., Fan, J., Fossella, J. (2008). Placing neuroanatomical models of executive function in a developmental context: Imaging and imaging--genetic strategies. Annals of the New York Academy of Science, 1129, 246–255. doi:10.1196/annals.1417.025 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Case, R., Kurland, D.M., Goldberg, J. (1982). Operational efficiency and the growth of short-term memory span. Journal of Experiemental Child Psychology, 33(3), 386–404. doi:10.1016/0022-0965(82)90054-6 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Castellanos, F.X., Tannock, R. (2002). Neuroscience of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: The search for endophenotypes. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 3(8), 617–628. doi:10.1038/nrn896 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chhabildas, N., Pennington, B.F., Willcutt, E.G. (2001). A comparison of the neuropsychological profiles of the DSM-IV subtypes of ADHD. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 29(6), 529–540.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chiappe, P., Hasher, L., Siegel, L.S. (2000). Working memory, inhibitory control, and reading disability. Memory & Cognition, 28(1), 8–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Collett, B., Ohan, J., Myers, K. (2003). Ten-year review of rating scales V: Scales assessing attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 42(9), 1015–1037. Retrieved from http://www.mdconsult.com/das/article/body/403646378-2/jorg=journal&source=&sp=14043839&sid=0/N/375590/1.html?issn=0890-8567 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Conners, C.K. (2008). Conners 3rd Edition. North Tonawanda, NY: Multi-Health Systems.Google Scholar
Cortese, S., Kelly, C., Chabernaud, C., Proal, E., Di Martino, A., Milham, M.P., Castellanos, F.X. (2012). Toward systems neuroscience of ADHD: A meta-analysis of 55 fMRI studies. American Journal of Psychiatry, 169, 1038–1055. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2012.11101521 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Currie, J., Stabile, M. (2006). Child mental health and human capital accumulation: The case of ADHD. Journal Health Economics, 25(6), 1094–1118. doi:10.1016/j.jhealeco.2006.03.001 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dahlin, K.E. (2011). Effects of working memory training on reading in children with special needs. Reading and Writing, 24(4), 479–491. doi:10.1007/s11145-010-9238-y CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dickstein, S.G., Bannon, K., Castellanos, F.X., Milham, M.P. (2006). The neural correlates of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: An ALE meta-analysis. Journal of Child Psychologyand Psychiatry, 47(10), 1051–1062. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01671.x CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Doyle, A.E. (2006). Executive functions in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 67(Suppl 8), 21–26. Retrieved from http://www.psychiatrist.com/default2.asp# Google ScholarPubMed
DuPaul, G., Power, T., Anastopoulos, A., Reid, R. (1998). ADHD Rating Scale-IV: Checklists, norms, and clinical interpretation. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Engelhardt, P.E., Nigg, J.T., Carr, L.A., Ferreira, F. (2008). Cognitive inhibition and working memory in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 117(3), 591–605. doi:10.1037/a0012593 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fergusson, D.M., Horwood, L.J. (1995). Early disruptive behavior, IQ, and later school achievement and delinquent behavior. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 23(2), 183–199. Retrieved from http://rd.springer.com/journal/volumesAndIssues/10802 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fergusson, D.M., Lynskey, M.T., Horwood, L.J. (1997). Attentional difficulties in middle childhood and psychosocial outcomes in young adulthood. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 38(6), 633–644. Retrieved from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1111/(ISSN)1469-7610 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frazier, T.W., Youngstrom, E.A., Glutting, J.J., Watkins, M.W. (2007). ADHD and achievement: Meta-analysis of the child, adolescent, and adult literatures and a concomitant study with college students. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 40(1), 49–65. Retrieved from http://ldx.sagepub.com/ CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Galera, C., Melchior, M., Chastang, J.F., Bouvard, M.P., Fombonne, E. (2009). Childhood and adolescent hyperactivity-inattention symptoms and academic achievement 8 years later: The GAZEL Youth study. Psychological Medicine, 39(11), 1895–1906. doi:10.1017/S0033291709005510 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gathercole, S.E., Pickering, S.J., Ambridge, B., Wearing, H. (2004). The structure of working memory from 4 to 15 years of age. Developmental Psychology, 40(2), 177–190. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.40.2.177 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Giannopulu, I., Escolano, S., Cusin, F., Citeau, H., Dellatolas, G. (2008). Teachers’ reporting of behavioural problems and cognitive-academic performances in children aged 5-7 years. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 78(Pt 1), 127–147. doi:10.1348/000709907X204372 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gray, S.A., Chaban, P., Martinussen, R., Goldberg, R., Gotlieb, H., Kronitz, R., Tannock, R. (2012). Effects of a computerized working memory training program on working memory, attention, and academics in adolescents with severe LD and comorbid ADHD: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 53(12), 1277–1284. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2012.02592.x CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hellmuth, J., Mirsky, J., Heuer, H.W., Matlin, A., Jafari, A., Garbutt, S., Boxer, A.L. (2012). Multicenter validation of a bedside antisaccade task as a measure of executive function. Neurology, 78(23), 1824–1831. doi:10.1212/WNL.0b013e318258f785 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Holmes, J., Gathercole, S.E., Dunning, D.L. (2009). Adaptive training leads to sustained enhancement of poor working memory in children. Developmental Science, 12(4), F9–F15. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2009.00848.x CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kasper, L.J., Alderson, R.M., Hudec, K.L. (2012). Moderators of working memory deficits in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 32(7), 605–617. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2012.07.001 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Klingberg, T., Fernell, E., Olesen, P.J., Johnson, M., Gustafsson, P., Dahlstrom, K., Westerberg, H. (2005). Computerized training of working memory in children with ADHD--a randomized, controlled trial. Journal American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 44(2), 177–186. doi:10.1097/00004583-200502000-00010 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kofler, M.J., Rapport, M.D., Bolden, J., Altro, T.A. (2008). Working memory as a core deficit in ADHD: Preliminary findings and implications. The ADHD Report, 16, 8–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kramer, J. (2011). Executive Abilities: Measures and Instruments for Neurobehavioral Evaluation and Research (EXAMINER). Retrieved from http://examiner.ucsf.edu/EXAMINER%20User%20Manual.pdf Google Scholar
Krueger, C.E., Bird, A.C., Growdon, M.E., Jang, J.Y., Miller, B.L., Kramer, J.H. (2009). Conflict monitoring in early frontotemporal dementia. Neurology, 73(5), 349–355. doi:0.1212/WNL.0b013e3181b04b24 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Langberg, J.M., Dvorsky, M.R., Evans, S.W. (2013). What specific facets of executive function are associated with academic functioning in youth with attention-deficit/hyerpactivity disorder? Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology , 41, 1145–1159. doi:10.1007/s10802-013-9750-z CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Langberg, J.M., Molina, B.S., Arnold, L.E., Epstein, J.N., Altaye, M., Hinshaw, S.P., Hechtman, L. (2011). Patterns and predictors of adolescent academic achievement and performance in a sample of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Clincal Child and Adolescent Psychology, 40(4), 519–531. doi:10.1080/15374416.2011.581620 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Loe, I.M., Feldman, H.M. (2007). Academic and educational outcomes of children with ADHD. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 32(6), 643–654. doi:10.1093/jpepsy/jsl054 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Logan, G.D., Cowan, W.B., Davis, K.A. (1984). On the ability to inhibit simple and choice reaction time responses: A model and a method. Journal Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 10(2), 276–291. Retrieved from http://psycnet.apa.org/index.cfm?fa=browsePA.volumes&jcode=xhp Google Scholar
Marcus, S.C., Durkin, M. (2011). Stimulant adherence and academic performance in urban youth with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 50(5), 480–489. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2011.02.007 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Martinussen, R., Hayden, J., Hogg-Johnson, S., Tannock, R. (2005). A meta-analysis of working memory impairments in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 44(4), 377–384. doi:10.1097/01.chi.0000153228.72591.73 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Massetti, G.M., Lahey, B.B., Pelham, W.E., Loney, J., Ehrhardt, A., Lee, S.S., Kipp, H. (2008). Academic achievement over 8 years among children who met modified criteria for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder at 4–6 years of age. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36(3), 399–410. doi:10.1007/s10802-007-9186-4 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Melby-Lervåg, M., Hulme, C. (2013). Is working memory training effective? A meta-analytic review. Developmental Psychology, 49(2), 270–291. doi:10.1037/a0028228 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Merrell, C., Tymms, P.B. (2001). Inattention, hyperactivity and impulsiveness: Their impact on academic achievement and progress. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 71(Pt 1), 43–56. Retrieved from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1111/(ISSN)2044-8279 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miller, M., Nevado-Montenegro, A.J., Hinshaw, S.P. (2012). Childhood executive function continues to predict outcomes in young adult females with and without childhood-diagnosed ADHD. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 40, 657–668. doi:10.1007/s10802-011-9599-y CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Molina, B.S., Hinshaw, S.P., Swanson, J.M., Arnold, L.E., Vitiello, B., Jensen, P.S., Houck, P.R. (2009). The MTA at 8 years: Prospective follow-up of children treated for combined-type ADHD in a multisite study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 48(5), 484–500. doi:10.1097/CHI.0b013e31819c23d0 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moore, T.L., Schettler, S.P., Killiany, R.J., Rosene, D.L., Moss, M.B. (2012). Impairment in delayed nonmatching to sample following lesions of dorsal prefrontal cortex. Behavioral Neuroscience, 126(6), 772–780. doi:10.1037/a0030493 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nigg, J.T. (2000). On inhibition/disinhibition in developmental psychopathology: Views from cognitive and personality psychology and a working inhibition taxonomy. Psychological Bulletin, 126(2), 220–246. Retrieved from http://psycnet.apa.org/index.cfm?fa=browsePA.volumes&jcode=bul CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nigg, J.T. (2001). Is ADHD a disinhibitory disorder? Psychology Bulletin , 127(5), 571–598. Retrieved from http://psycnet.apa.org/index.cfm?fa=browsePA.volumes&jcode=bul CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nigg, J.T., Willcutt, E.G., Doyle, A.E., Sonuga-Barke, E.J. (2005). Causal heterogeneity in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Do we need neuropsychologically impaired subtypes? Biological Psychiatry, 57(11), 1224–1230. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.08.025 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O'Brien, J.W., Dowell, L.R., Mostofsky, S.H., Denckla, M.B., Mahone, E.M. (2010). Neuropsychological profile of executive function in girls with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 25(7), 656–670. doi:10.1093/arclin/acq050 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pennington, B.F., Ozonoff, S. (1996). Executive functions and developmental psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 37(1), 51–87. Retrieved from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1111/(ISSN)1469-7610 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Petrides, M. (2000). The role of the mid-dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in working memory. Experimental Brain Research, 133(1), 44–54. Retrieved from http://www.springer.com/biomed/neuroscience/journal/221 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pietrzak, R.H., Mollica, C.M., Maruff, P., Snyder, P.J. (2006). Cognitive effects of immediate-release methylphenidate in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. [Review]. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Review, 30(8), 1225–1245. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2006.10.002 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pliszka, S.R. (2000). Patterns of psychiatric comorbidity with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Child & Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 9(3), 525–540, vii. Retrieved from http://www.childpsych.theclinics.com/issues CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Purvis, K.L., Tannock, R. (2000). Phonological processing, not inhibitory control, differentiates ADHD and reading disability. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39(4), 485–494. doi:10.1097/00004583-200004000-00018 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rabin, L.A., Barr, W.B., Burton, L.A. (2005). Assessment practices of clinical neuropsychologists in the United States and Canada: A survey of INS, NAN, and APA Division 40 members. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 20(1), 33–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rabiner, D., Coie, J.D. (2000). Early attention problems and children's reading achievement: A longitudinal investigation. The Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39(7), 859–867.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Randall, J., Engelhard, G. (2009). Examining teacher grades using rasch measurement theory. Journal of Educational Measurement, 46(1), 1–18. doi:10.1111/j.1745-3984.2009.01066.x CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rapport, M.D. (2001). Bridging theory and practice: Conceptual understanding of treatments for children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), autism, and depression. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 30(1), 3–7. doi:10.1207/S15374424JCCP3001_2 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rapport, M.D., Chung, K.M., Shore, G., Isaacs, P. (2001). A conceptual model of child psychopathology: Implications for understanding attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and treatment efficacy. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 30(1), 48–58. doi:10.1207/S15374424JCCP3001_6 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rapport, M.D., Denney, C., DuPaul, G.J., Gardner, M.J. (1994). Attention deficit disorder and methylphenidate: Normalization rates, clinical effectiveness, and response prediction in 76 children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 33(6), 882–893. doi:10.1097/00004583-199407000-00015 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ravizza, S.M., Ciranni, M.A. (2002). Contributions of the prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia to set shifting. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 14(3), 472–483. doi:10.1162/089892902317361985 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reynolds, C., Kamphaus, R. (2004). Behavior assessment for children, (BASC-2). Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.Google Scholar
Seidman, L.J., Valera, E.M., Makris, N. (2005). Structural brain imaging of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 57(11), 1263–1272. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.11.019 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stefanatos, G.A., Baron, I.S. (2007). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A neuropsychological perspective towards DSM-V. Neuropsychology Review, 17(1), 5–38. doi:10.1007/s11065-007-9020-3 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stern, C.E., Owen, A.M., Tracey, I., Look, R.B., Rosen, B.R., Petrides, M. (2000). Activity in ventrolateral and mid-dorsolateral prefrontal cortex during nonspatial visual working memory processing: Evidence from functional magnetic resonance imaging. Neuroimage, 11(Pt 1), 392–399. doi:10.1006/nimg.2000.0569 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Swanson, J., Baler, R.D., Volkow, N.D. (2011). Understanding the effects of stimulant medications on cognition in individuals with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A decade of progress. Neuropsychopharmacology, 36, 207–226. doi:10.1038/npp.2010.160 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Swanson, J.M., McBurnett, K., Wigal, T., Pfiffner, L.J., Williams, L., Christian, D.L. (1993). Effects of stimulant medication on children with attention deficit disorder: A ‘review of reviews’. Exceptional Children, 60(2), 154–162. Retrieved from http://www.questia.com/library/p367/exceptional-children CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wechsler, D. (1999). Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence. San Antonio, TX: Harcourt Assessment.Google Scholar
Weintraub, S., Bauer, P.J., Zelazo, P.D., Wallner-Allen, K., Dikmen, S.S., Heaton, R.K., Gershon, R.C. (2013). Nih toolbox cognition battery (cb): Introduction and pediatric data. Monographs of the Society for Research on Child Development, 78(4), 1–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilkinson, G.S., Robertson, G.J. (2006). Wide Range Achievement Test - 4 (WRAT-4). Lutz, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.Google Scholar
Willcutt, E.G., Doyle, A.E., Nigg, J.T., Faraone, S.V., Pennington, B.F. (2005). Validity of the executive function theory of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A meta-analytic review. Biological Psychiatry, 57(11), 1336–1346. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.02.006 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Willcutt, E.G., Pennington, B.F., Boada, R., Ogline, J.S., Tunick, R.A., Chhabildas, N.A., Olson, R.K. (2001). A comparison of the cognitive deficits in reading disability and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 110, 157–172. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/abn/index.aspx CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wodka, E.L., Mostofsky, S.H., Prahme, C., Gidley Larson, J.C., Loftis, C., Denckla, M.B., Mahone, E.M. (2008). Process examination of executive function in ADHD: Sex and subtype effects. Clinical Neuropsychology, 22(5), 826–841. doi:10.1080/13854040701563583 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Woodcock, R., McGraw, K., Mather, N. (2001). Woodcock-Johnson Third Edition, Tests of Achievement. Itasca, IL: Riverside Publishing.Google Scholar