Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-fbnjt Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-15T19:20:35.815Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Human Sacrifice at Pachacamac

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

Peter Eeckhout  and
Lawrence Stewart Owens
Peter Eeckhout
Affiliation:
Département Histoire, Art et Archéologie, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Av. F. Roosevelt 50 (CP175), 1050 Brussels, Belgium (peeckhou@ulb.ac.be)
Lawrence Stewart Owens
Affiliation:
Bioarchaeology Section, Birkbeck College FCE, University of London 26 Russell Square, London WC1B 5DQ, United Kingdom (lawrence_owens@yahoo.co.uk)
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This is a study of the historical, archaeological, and anatomical/pathological evidence for human sacrifice at the Peruvian coastal site of Pachacamac during the Late Intermediate and Late Horizon Periods (A.D. 1000-1475 and 1475-1533). It highlights the problems associated with the identification of archaeological sacrifice, then goes on to summarize the pathological and cultural evidence from the site. The significance of this evidence is evaluated using not only traditional paradigms but also the notion of “deviant” burial; this is proposed as a formalized means of identifying archaeological sacrifice in collaboration with—and in the absence of—other indicators. Comparisons are carried out with selected sites and periods, and in both coastal and inland regions. Supplementary evidence from international contexts is also considered. The anatomical and contextual findings from Pachacamac reflect a shift from the somewhat sanguineous cultures such as the Nasca and the Moche, to the perfection-obsessed sacrificial modality of the Incas. The former seems to be concerned primarily with retainer burials and the punishment of enemies or opponents, which were offered to an uncertain eternity as a gesture to some higher power. The iconographic, archaeological, and anatomical evidence for sacrifice in these groups is commensurately dramatic. In the case of the Incas, the sacrifices were intended to bless objects or missions, give thanks, or to appeal for supernatural favors or assistance. We go on to propose—for the first time in Latin America—a theoretical framework for identifying and interpreting “deviant” burials in the Andean archaeological record.

Resumen

Resumen

Este estudio trata de las evidencias históricas, arqueológicas y anatómicas/patológicas relacionadas con el sacrificio humano en el sitio peruano costeño de Pachacamac en los periodos Intermedio Tardio y Horizonte Tardio (1000-1475 y 1475-1533 dne). Se conocen muchas formas diferents del sacrificio en los Andes Centrales, y el tema ha sido discutido por varios autores, pero sin consenso sobre su definición. Luego de una breve presentación del sitio de investigaciones, empezemos por establecer criterios para definir el sacrificio humano, inspirandonos del estudio desta práctica en una serie de antiguas culturas y sociedades a traves del mundo. Esto nos llevo a sugerir que el sacrificio humano es cualquier matanza de un individuo por motivos rituales/ simbólicos, pues las intenciones específicas se encuentran por lo general fuera del alcanze del arqueólogo, especialmente en las culturas sin escritura como las del antiguo Perú. Continuamos con el problema de la identificación del sacrifico humano en el registro arqueológico, sea:? como identificar la practica sacrificical en base de las evidencias materiales ¿ Para esto, nos referimos al concepto de “entierro desviante”. Este concepto primero propuesto por Geake (1992) para la arqueología medieval inglesa se ha vuelto progresivamente un elemento crucial en el exámen de la muestra antropofísica. En terminos cortos, se refiere a la modalidad de la muerte de un individuo y/o la manera con la cual sus restos físicos se encuentran o han sido usados, y que nos dicen estos elementos respecto a las normas funerarias en la cultura a la cual pertenece el difunto. Aqui enfocamos en la identificación de una categoria de entierros desviantes: el sacrificio humano. La metodología que usamos con fines de identificar el sacrificio en nuestra muestra de Pachacamac combina las evidencias antropológicas y arqueológicas. Aparte de las evidencias anatómicas directas de traumatismo físico, hay muchas evidencias de entierros “desviantes” que ayudan para contextualizar los individuos traumatizados y también proporcionan un medio potencial para identificar gente sacrificados en ausencia de evidencias patológicas. Por lo tanto se puede usar tres combinaciones: (1) Traumatismo y Entierro Desviante; (2) Traumatismo sin Entierro Desviante; (3) Entierro Desviante sin Traumatismo. Esto nos lleva a introducir el concpeto de Individuos Potencialmente Sacrificados (PSIs en el texto): el análisis de la configuración anatómica y contextual de concepto PSI proporciona al investigador una base a partir de la cual se determina la probabilidad de sacrificio para cada individuo. Este marco teórico y metodológico se aplico a nuestro corpus de 181 excavados en Pachacamac. Respaldamos la propuesta de John Verano respecto a la existencia de dos patrones de sacrificio humano identificados en sitios prehispánicos Peruanos (niño o adolescentes como acompañantes o ofrendas para meta especial, y varones prisoneros sin tratamiento espécífico). Por otro lado, nuestra muestra sugiere alguna forma de dicotomia entre las tradiciones sacrificiales de la Costa Norte (sangrienta) y Central (no sangrienta).

Type
Articles
Information
Latin American Antiquity , Volume 19 , Issue 4 , December 2008 , pp. 375 - 398
Copyright
Copyright © Society for American Archaeology 2008

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References Cited

Alva, Walter 1988 Discovering the New World's Richest Unlooted Tomb. National Geographic 174(4):510–55.Google Scholar
Alva, Walter 1990 New Tomb of Royal Splendor. National Geographic 177(6)2-16.Google Scholar
Alva Alva, Walter, and Donnan, Christopher B. 1993 Royal Tombs of Sipán. Fowler Museum of Cultural History, University of California, Los Angeles.Google Scholar
Albert, Jean-Pierre, Crubézy, Eric, and Midant-Reynes, Béatrix 2005 L'archéologie du sacrifice humain. Problèmes et hypothèses. In he sacrifice humain en Egypte ancienne et ailleurs, edited by Jean-Pierre Albert and Béatrix Midant-Reynes, pp. 20-33. Editions Soleb, Paris.Google Scholar
Andrushko, Valerie A., Latham, Kate A.S., Grady, Diane L., Pastron, Allen G., and Walker, Phillip L. 2005 Bioarchaeological Evidence for Trophy-Taking in Prehistoric Central California. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 127:375–384.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aspock, Edeltraud 2007 What Actually Is a Deviant Burial? Comparing German-Language and Anglophone Research on Deviant Burials. In Deviant Burial Practices in the Archaeological Record, edited by Eileen Murphy. Oxbow books, Oxford, in press.Google Scholar
Avila, Francisco de 1987 [1608?] Ritos et Tradiciones de Huarochiri del siglo XVII. Versión paleográfica, interpretatión fonológica y traductión al castellano por Gérald Taylor. Instituto de Estu-dios Peruanos e Instituto Frances de Estudios Andinos, Lima.Google Scholar
Baiter, Michael 2005 Deviant' Burials Reveal Death on the Fringe in Ancient Societies. Science 310(5748):613 Google Scholar
Beard, Mary, North, John, and Price, Simon 1998 Religions of Rome. University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Benson, Elizabeth P., 2001 Why Sacrifice? In Ritual Sacrifice in Ancient Peru, edited by Elizabeth Benson and Anita Cook, pp. 1–21. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Benson, Elizabeth P., and Cook, Anita (editors) 2001 Ritual Sacrifice in Ancient Peru. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Bloch, Maurice 1997 La violence du religieux. Editions Odile Jacob, Paris.Google Scholar
Bonnechère, Pierre 1994 Le sacrifice humain en Grèce ancienne. Kernos Suppl. 3, Athènes-Liège.Google Scholar
Boone, Elizabeth H. (editor) 1984 Ritual Human Sacrifice in Mesoamerica. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Bourget, Steve 1997 Las Excavaciones en la Plaza 3A de la Huaca de la Luna. In Investigaciones en la Huaca de la Luna 1995, edited by Santiago Uceda, Elías Mujica, and Ricardo Morales, pp. 51–59. Facultad de Ciencias Sociales, Universidad Nacional de La Libertad, Trujillo.Google Scholar
Bourget, Steve 1998 Pratiques sacrificielles au site Moche de la Huaca de la Luna. Boletín del Instituto Francès de Estudios Andinos 27(1):41–74.Google Scholar
Bourget, Steve 2001 Rituals of Sacrifice: Its Practice at Huaca de la Luna and Its Representation in Moche Iconography. In Moche Art and Archaeology in Ancient Peru, edited by Joanne Pillsbury, pp. 89–110. Studies in History of Art, 63. National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Bourget, Steve, and Millaire, Jean-François 2000 Las Excavaciones en la Plaza 3A y la Plataforma II de la Huaca de la Luna. In Investigaciones en la Huaca de la Luna 1997, edited by Santiago Uceda, Elías Mujica, and Ricardo Morales, pp. 47–60. Facultad de Ciencias Sociales, Universidad Nacional de La Libertad, Trujillo.Google Scholar
Brown, James A. 1995 Andean Mortuary Practices in perspective. In Tombs for the Living: Andean Mortuary Practices in Perspective, edited by Tom. D. Dillehay, pp. 391–406. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Brunaux, Jean-Louis 2000 Les Religions Gauloises. Editions Errance, Paris.Google Scholar
Brunaux, Jean-Louis 2002 Neue Untersuchungen zu Kulten und rituelle Praktiken der Kelten in Nordfrankreich. Mitteilungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte 23:19–27.Google Scholar
Brunaux, Jean-Louis 2005 Sacrifices humains chez les Gaulois. Réalités du sacrifice, réalités archéologiques. In Le sacrifice humain en Egypte ancienne et ailleurs, edited by J-P Albert and B.-Midant-Reynes, pp. 256–273. Editions Soleb, Paris.Google Scholar
Buckberry, Jo 2008 Off With Their Heads: The Anglo-Saxon Execution Cemetery at Walkington Wold. In Deviant Burial Practices in the Archaeological Record (Studies in Funerary Archaeology), edited by E. Murphy, pp. 148–168. Oxbow books, Oxford, in press.Google Scholar
Bueno Mendoza, Alberto 1982 Antiguo Valle de Pachacamac: Espacio, Tiempo y Cultura. Editorial de Los Pinos, Lima.Google Scholar
Buikstra, Jane 1977 Biocultural Dimensions of Archaeological Study: A Regional Perspective. In Biocultural Adaptation in Prehistoric America, edited by Robert L. Blakely, pp. 67–84. Proceedings of the Southern Anthropological Society, No. 11. University of Georgia Press, Athens.Google Scholar
Buikstra, Jane, and Ubelaker, Douglas 1994 Standards for Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains. Research Series, no. 44. Arkansas Archaeological Survey, Fayetteville.Google Scholar
Burger, Richard L. 1992 Chavín and the Origins of Andean Civilization. Thames and Hudson, London.Google Scholar
Burkert, Walter 1983 Homo Necans: The Anthropology of Ancient Greek Sacrificial Ritual and Myth. University of California Press. Berkeley.Google Scholar
Cadoux, Jean-Louis 1996 Menschenopfer oder Massegrab. Antike Welt 27(4):271–288.Google Scholar
Calancha, Antonio de 1975 [1638] Crónica Moralizada del Orden de San Agustín en el Perú, con Succesos Ejemplares Vistos en este Monarquía. Crónicas del Perú, Vol. 4,5,6. Edicion Ignacio Prado Pastor, Lima.Google Scholar
Carrasco, Davíd 1999 City of Sacrifice. The Aztec Empire and the Role of Violence in Civilization. Beacon Press, Boston.Google Scholar
Casareto, Dante 2005 Excavaciones en Cajamarquilla. Conference given at the Museo Nacional de Arqueología, Antropología e Historia del Perú, Lima, 26 November.Google Scholar
Cerulli, Ernesta 1967 Cajamarquilla 1962–1967. Attivitá della Missione Archeologica Italiana in Peru. Annali di ricerche i studi di Geografia 13(3):49–60.Google Scholar
Ceruti, María Constanza 2003 Elegidos de los dioses: identidad y estatus en las víctimas sacrificiales del volcán Lluillaillaco. Boletín de Arqueología PUCP 7:263–276.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cieza de León, Pedro 1994 [1551] La Crónica del Perú. Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, Lima.Google Scholar
Cobo, Fray Bernabé 1964 [1653] Historia del Nuevo Mundo. Biblioteca de Autores Espanoles, T. 41–42. Ediciones Atlas, Madrid.Google Scholar
Conrad, Geoffrey W. 1981 Cultural Materialism, Split Inheritance, and the Expansion of Ancient Peruvian Empires. American Antiquity 46:3–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Conrad, Geoffrey W. 1982 The Burial Platforms of Chan Chan: Some Social and Political Implications. In Chan Chan: Andean Desert City, edited by Michael Moseley and Kent C. Day, pp. 87–118. A School of American Research Book, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Cook, Anita G. 2001 Huari D-Shaped Structures, Sacrifical Offerings, and Divine Rulership. In Ritual Sacrifice in Ancient Peru, edited by Elizabeth Benson and Anita Cook, pp. 137–164. University of Texas Press, Austin.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cordy-Collins, Alana 2001 Decapitation in Cupisnique and Early Moche Societies. In Ritual Sacrifice in Ancient Peru, edited by Elizabeth Benson and Anita Cook, pp. 21–33. University of Texas Press, Austin.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davies, Nigel 1988 Human Sacrifice in History and Today. Dorset Press, New York.Google Scholar
DeLeonardis, Lisa 2000 The Body Context: Interpreting Early Nasca Decapited Burials. Latin American Antiquity 11:363–386.Google Scholar
Donnan, Christopher B. 1995 Moche Funerary Practice. In Tombs for the Living: Andean Mortuary Practices, edited by Tom D. Dillehay, pp. 111–160. Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Donnan, Christopher B., and Mackey, Carol 1978 Ancient Burial Patterns of the Moche Valley, Peru. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Dorsey, George A. 1901 Archaeological Investigations on the Island of La Plata, Ecuador. Anthropological Series, Vol.II (5). Filed Columbian Museum Publications 56, Chicago.Google Scholar
Drcyer, Günter 1992 The Royal Tombs of Abydos. In The Near East in Antiquity. German Contribution to the Archaeology of Jordan, Palestine, Syria, Lebannon and Egypt, vol.III, edited by Salomon Kerner, pp. 55–67. Goethe-Institut, Ammam.Google Scholar
Dumézil, George 1970 Archaic Roman Religion. Translated by P. Krapp. Chicago University, Chicago.Google Scholar
Duviols, Pierre 1976 La Capacocha. Mecanismo y función del sacrificio humano, su proyección geometrico, su papel en la politica integracionista y en la economia redistributiva del Tawantinsuyu. Allpanchis Phuturinga 9:11–57.Google Scholar
Eeckhout, Peter 1998 Offrandes funéraires à Pachacamac et Pampa de las Flores. Exemples des relations entre les côtes nord et centrale du Pérou à l'époque pré-inca. Baessler-Archiv Neue Folge 46:1–66.Google Scholar
Eeckhout, Peter 1999a Pachacamac durant l’Intermédiaire récent. Etude d'un site monumental préhispanique de la Côte centrale du Pérou. British Archaeological Reports International Series, 747. Hadrian Books Ltd, Oxford.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eeckhout, Peter 1999b Les sacrifiés de Pampa de las Florès. Contribution archéologique à l’étude du sacrifice humain dans les Andes préhispaniques. Recherches Amérindiennes au Québec 29:75–91.Google Scholar
Eeckhout, Peter 2003 Ancient Monuments and Patterns of Power at Pachacamac, Central Coast of Peru, Beiträge zur Allgemeine und Vergleichenden Archäologie 23:139–182 Google Scholar
Eeckhout, Peter 2004a Relatos míticos y Practica Rituales en Pachacamac. Boletín del Instituto Frances de Estudios Andinos 33(1): 1–54 Google Scholar
Eeckhout, Peter 2004b La sombra de Ychsma. Ensayo Introductivo sobre la arqueología de la costa central del Perú en los periodos tardios. In Arqueología de la Costa Central del Perú en los Periodos Tardios, edited by Peter Eeckhout, pp. 403–425. Special volume of Boletin del Instituto Francés de Estudios Andinos 33(3). Lima and Paris.Google Scholar
Eeckhout, Peter 2004c Pachacamac y el proyecto Ychsma(1999–2003). In Arqueología de la Costa Central del Perú en los Periodos Tardios, edited by Peter Eeckhout, pp. 425–448. Special volume of Boletin del Instituto Francés de Estudios Andinos 33(3). Lima and Paris.Google Scholar
Eeckhout, Peter 2004d Reyes del Sol y Señores de la Luna. Inkas e Ychsmas en Pachacamac. Chungara 36(2):495–503.Google Scholar
Eeckhout, Peter 2005a Ancient Peru’s Power Elite. National Geographic Magazine 207(3):52–57.Google Scholar
Eeckhout, Peter 2005b Imperial Strategies in a Regional Context: Chimus and Incas at Pachacamac. In Wars and Conflicts in Pre-hispanic Mesoamerica and the Andes, edited by Peter Eeckhout and Geneviève Le Fort, pp. 110–127. British Archaeological Reports International Series, 1385. Hadrian Books Ltd, Oxford.Google Scholar
Eeckhout, Peter 2006 Semillas sagradas: El Ishpingo(Nectandra sp.) en Pachacamac, Costa central del Perú. In Change in the Andes: Origins of Social Complexity, Pastoralism and Agriculture. Acts of the XIVth UISPP Congress, University of Liège, Belgium, 2-8 September 2001, edited by Le Secrétariat du Congrès, pp.201–210. British Archaeological Reports International Series, 1524. Hadrian Books Ltd, Oxford.Google Scholar
Eeckhout, Peter 2008 El oráculo de Pachacamac y los peregrinajes a larga distancia en el mundo andino antiguo. In Adivinación y oráculos en el mundo andino antiguo, edited by Mario Curatola Petrocchi and Mariusz Ziolkowski, pp. 161–180. IFEA, Lima.Google Scholar
Eeckhout, Peter 2009 Nuevas evidencias sobre costumbres funerarias en Pachacamac. Boletín de Arqueología PUCP (Lima) 11, in press.Google Scholar
Eeckhout, Peter, and Carlos Farfán, L. 2001 Proyecto Ychsma, Temporada 2000–2001. Final Report to the Peruvian Instituto Nacional de Cultura, Lima.Google Scholar
Eeckhout, Peter, and Carlos Farfán, L. 2004 Proyecto Ychsma, Temporada 2004. Final Report to the Peruvian Instituto Nacional de Cultura, Lima.Google Scholar
Eeckhout, Peter, and Carlos Farfán, L. 2005 Proyecto Ychsma, Temporada 2005. Final Report to the Peruvian Instituto Nacional de Cultura, Lima Google Scholar
Carlos, Farfán L. 2004 Aspectos simbólicos de las pirámides con rampa. Ensayo interpretative In Arqueología de la Costa Central del Perú en los Periodos Tardios, edited by Peter Eeckhout, pp. 449–464. Special volume of Boletin del Instituto Francés de Estudios Andinos 33(3). Lima and Paris.Google Scholar
Fleming, Stuart 1983 Infant Sacrifice at Pachacamac, Peru: Dignity in Death. Archaeology 40(2):64–65, 74, 77.Google Scholar
Geake, Helen 1992 Burial practice in 7th and 8th century England. In The Age of Sutton Hoo, edited by Martin Carver, pp. 83–94. The Boydell Press, Woodbridge, England.Google Scholar
Geake, Helen 2002 Persistent Problems in the Study of Conversion-Period Burials in England. In Burial in Early Medieval England and Wales, edited by Sam Lucy and Andrew Reynolds, pp. 144–155. The Society for Medieval Archaeology, London.Google Scholar
Girard, Rafael 1972 La violence et le sacré. Editions Grasset, Paris.Google Scholar
Godelier, Maurice 1996 L’énigme du don. Editions Fayard, Paris Google Scholar
Gonzalez-Torres, Yolotl 1985 El sacrificio humano entre los Mexicas. Fondo de Cultura Economica e Instituto Nacional de Arqueología e Historia, Mexico.Google Scholar
Gonzalez-Torres, Yolotl 2001 Sacrifice and Ritual Violence. In The Oxford Encyclopedia of Mesoamerican Cultures. The Civilizations of Mexico and Central America, vol.3, edited by David Carrasco, pp. 102–104. Oxford University Press, Oxford and New York.Google Scholar
Guamán Poma de Ayala, Felipe 1989 [1613] Nueva Corónica y Buen Gobierno. Travaux et Mémoires de l’Institut d’Ethnologie 23(2nd reprint), Paris.Google Scholar
Graulich, Michel 1998 Double Immolations in Ancient Mexican Sacrificial Ritual. History of Religions 37:393–404.Google Scholar
Graulich, Michel 2000 Aztec Human Sacrifice as Expiation. History of Religions 39:352–371.Google Scholar
Graulich, Michel 2005 Le sacrifice humain chez les Aztèques. Fayard, Paris.Google Scholar
Hay, John 1973 Ancient China. Henry Z. Walck, Inc., New York.Google Scholar
Hecker, Gisela, and Hecker, W. 1992 Ofrendas de huesos humanos y uso repetido de vasijas en el culto funerario de la costa norperuana. Gaceta Arqueológica Andina 21:33–53.Google Scholar
Helfrich, Klaus 1973 Menschenopfer und Tötungsrituale im Kult der Maya. Gebr. Mann, Berlin.Google Scholar
Heusch, Luc de 1986 he sacrifice dans les religions africaines. Editions Gallimard, Paris.Google Scholar
Hubert, Henri, and Mauss, Marcel 1899 Essai sur la nature et la fonction du sacrifice. L’Année Sociologique 2:29–138.Google Scholar
Hughes, Dennis D. 1991 Human Sacrifice in Ancient Greece. Routledge, London and New York.Google Scholar
Hyde, George E. 1974 The Pawnee Indians. New ed. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.Google Scholar
Hyslop, John 1990 Inka Settlement Planning. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Isbell, William H. 2004 Mortuary Preferences: A Wari Culture Case Study from Middle Horizon Peru. Latin American Antiquity 15:3–32.Google Scholar
Jerez, Francisco de 1965 [1534] Verdadera Relatión de la Conquista del Perú llamada la Nueva Castilla Conquistada por Francisco Pizarro. In Crónicas de la Conquista del Perú, edited by Julio Le Riverend, pp. 29–124. Editorial Nueva España S.A., Mexico.Google Scholar
Jijon, y Caamaño, Jacinto 1949 Maranga, Contributión al Conocimiento de losAborigenes del Valle delRímac, Perú. La Prensa Catolica, Quito.Google Scholar
Kaulicke, Peter 2001 Cronología, identidad, urbanismo y estado en los Andes Centrales y surcentrales entre los siglos V a X d.C.: algunas reflexiones finales. Boletín de Arqueología PUCP 5:481–530.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kirch, Patrick V. 2000 On the Roads of the Winds. An Archaeological History of the Pacific Islands Before European Contact. University of California Press, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Kroeber, Alfred L. 1954 Proto-Lima: A Middle Culture of Peru. Fieldiana Anthropology 44. Chicago Natural History Museum, Chicago.Google Scholar
Larsen, Clark Spencer 1997 Bioarchaeology: Interpreting Behaviour from the Human Skeleton. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Leach, Edmund 1980 L’unité de l’homme. Editions Gallimard, Paris.Google Scholar
Lumbreras, Luis G. 1974 The People and Cultures of Ancient Peru. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington D.C.Google Scholar
Lyon, Patricia 1995 Death in the Andes. In Tombs for the Living: Andean Mortuary Practices, edited by Tom. D. Dillehay, pp. 379–390. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Maish, Amy 1998 Trauma at HK43. Nehken News 10:6–7.Google Scholar
Maish, Amy, and Friedman, Renée 1999 Pondering Paddy: Unwrapping the Mysteries of HK43. Nehken News 11:6–7.Google Scholar
McEwan, Colin, and Guchte, Marteen Van de 1992 Ancestral Time and Sacred Space in Inca State Ritual. In The Ancient Americas: Art from Sacred Landscapes, edited by Richard. R. Townsend, pp. 359–371. The Art Institute of Chicago, Chicago.Google Scholar
Michczincky, Adam, Eeckhout, Peter, Pazdur, Anna, and Pawlyta, Jacek 2007 Radiocarbon Dating of the Temple of the Monkey. The Next Step Towards Comprehensive Absolute Chronology of Pachacamac, Peru. Radiocarbon. An International Journal of Cosmogenic Isotope Research 49(2):565–578.Google Scholar
Millaire, Jean-Francois 2004 The Manipulation of Human Remains in Moche Society: Delayed Burials, Grave Reopening, and Secondary Offering of Human Bones on the Peruvian North Coast. Latin American Antiquity 15:371–88.Google Scholar
Molina de Cuzco, Cristóbal 1943 [1574] Fabulas y Ritos de los Incas. In Las Crónicas de Los Molinas, edited by Carlos A. Romero, Raúl Porras Barrenechea, and Francisco A. Loayza, pp. 1–84. Editorial Miranda, Lima.Google Scholar
Montoya, María de 1996 Implicancias del estudio de semillas rituales de Nectandra sp. en la época prehispánica. Revista del Museo de Arqueología de la Universidad de Trujillo 6:203–15 Google Scholar
Montoya, María de 2004 Complejo de ofrendas rituales y asociación a sacrificios humanos de niños en la época chimú en el valle de Moche. In Desarollo Arqueológico Costa Norte del Perú. Vol.2, edited by Luis Valle Alvarez, pp. 27–48. Ediciones SIAN, Trujillo.Google Scholar
Moorey, P. Roger S. 1977 What Do We Know About the People Buried in the Royal Cemetery. Expedition 20/21:24–40.Google Scholar
Murúa, Fray Martín de 1946 [1590 ?] Historia del orígen y genealogía real de los reyes incas del Perú. Introductión y arreglo de Constatino Bayle. Biblioteca Missionalia Hispanica, Instituto Santo Toribio de Mogrovejo, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Madrid.Google Scholar
Moseley, Michael E. 1992 The Incas and their Ancestors. Thames et Hudson, London.Google Scholar
Mostny, Grete (editor) 1957 La Momia del Cerro El Plomo. Boletín del Museo Nacional de Historia Natural, 27(1): 1–120. Santiago de Chile.Google Scholar
Martha Ilia, Nájera C. 1987 El don de la sangre en el equilibrio cósmico: el sacrificio y el autosacrificio sangriento entre los antiguos Mayas. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Instituto de Investigaciones Filológicas and Centro de Estudios Mayas, Mexico.Google Scholar
Owens, Lawrence S. 2003 Dental Anthropology Perspectives on the Population Biology, Diet and Health of the Prehispanic Canary Islands. Unpublished Doctoral Thesis, Institute of Archaeology, University of London.Google Scholar
Paredes Olvera, Juan 1999 Cabezas Trofeos y Rituales funerarios en la Cultura Lima. Gaceta Arqueológica Andina 25:45–60.Google Scholar
Petrie, W.M. Flinders 1900–1901 The Royal Tombs of the First Dynasty. EEF Excavation Memoirs 18, 21.Google Scholar
Polia Meconi, Mario 1999 La Cosmovisión Religiosa Andina en los documentos inéditos del Archivo Romano de la Compañia de Jesús 1581–1752. Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, Fondo editorial, Lima.Google Scholar
Polo de Ondegardo, Juan 1917 [1559] Tratado y aueriguación sobre los errores y supersticiones de los indios. In Coleccion de Libros y Documentos Referentes a la Historia del Perú, edited by Horacio H. Urteaga, and Carlos A. Romero, 1a serie, T.III, pp. 3–43. Imprenta y Libreria Sanmarti, Lima.Google Scholar
Pozorski, Thomas G. 1980 Las Avispas: plataforma funeraria. In Chan Chan metropoli chimu, edited by Rogger Ravines, 231–42. Instituto de Estudios Peruanos—ITINTEC, Lima.Google Scholar
Proulx, Donald A. 2001 Ritual Use of Trophy Heads in Ancient Nasca Society. In Ritual Sacrifice in Ancient Peru, edited by Elizabeth Benson and Anita Cook, pp. 119–36. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Reinhard, Johan 1992 Sacred peaks of the Andes. National Geographic Magazine 181(3):84–111.Google Scholar
Reinhard, Johan 1997 Sharp Eyes If Science Probe the Mummies of Peru. National Geographic Magazine 191(1):37–43.Google Scholar
Reinhard, Johan 1998 Research Update: New Inca Mummies. National Geographic Magazine 194(1): 128–135.Google Scholar
Reinhard, Johan 1999 Trois enfants incas figés pour l’éternité. National Geographic Magazine(France) 1(2):42–61.Google Scholar
Reisner, George A. 1936 Development of the Egyptian Tomb Down to the Accession of Cheops. Harvard University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Reynolds, Andrew 2009 Anglo-Saxon Deviant Burial Customs. Oxford University Press, Oxford, in press.Google Scholar
Rives, James B. 1995 Human Sacrifices among Pagans and Christians. Journal of Roman Studies 85:65–85.Google Scholar
Rives, James B. 1999 Tacitus: Germania. Clarendon Ancient History Series. Oxford University Press, Oxford Google Scholar
Rowe, John H. 1946 Inca Culture at the Time of the Spanish Conquest. In Handbook of South American Indians(Vol. II), edited by Julian H. Steward, pp. 183–330. Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 143. Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Rowe, John H. 1995 Behavior and Belief in Ancient Peruvian Mortuary Practice. In Tombs for the Living: Andean Mortuary Practices, edited by Tom. D. Dillehay, pp. 27–42. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Sahlins, Marshall 1985 Islands of History. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
Salomon, Frank 1995 “The Beautiful Grandparents”: Andean Ancestor Shrines and Mortuary Rituals as Seen Through Colonial Records. In Tombs for the Living: Andean Mortuary Practices, edited by Tom. D. Dillehay, pp. 315–354. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Santillán, Hernando de 1879 [1551] Relatión del orígen, descendencia, politica y gobierno de los Incas. In Tres Relaciones de Antigüedades Peruanas, pp. 15–185. Ministerio del Fomento, Madrid.Google Scholar
Schobinger, Juan 2001 El santuario incaico del cerro Aconcagua. Universidad Nacional de Cuyo, Mendoza.Google Scholar
Schobinger, Juan 2003 La momia inca del nevado de Chuscha(Noroeste Argentino): resultado preliminar de su estudio. Boletín de Arqueología PUCP 7:277–285.Google Scholar
Shimada, Izumi 1991 Pachacamac Archaeology. Retrospect and Prospect. In Pachacamac. A Reprint of the 1903 Edition by Max Ühle, pp.VIII-LXVI. University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia.Google Scholar
Shimada, Izumi 1995 Cultura Sicán. Edubanco, Lima.Google Scholar
Silverman, Helaine, and Proulx, Donald A. 2002 The Nasca. Blackwell Publishers, Oxford.Google Scholar
Spriggs, Matthew 1997 The Islands of the Melanesians. Blackwell Publishers, Oxford.Google Scholar
Strong, William D., and Evans, Clifford 1952 Cultural Stratigraphy in the Viru Valley, Northern Peru. Columbia University Studies in Archaeology and Ethnology, Vol.4. New York.Google Scholar
Standen, Vivien G., and Bernardo, T. Arriaza 2000 Trauma in the Preceramic Coastal Populations of Northern Chile: Violence or Occupational Hazards? American Journal of Physical Anthropology 112:239–249.Google Scholar
Stumer, Louis D. 1953 Playa Grande: Primitive Elegance in Pre-Tiahuanaco Peru. Archaeology 6(1):42–48.Google Scholar
Sutter, Richard C. 2001 Review of Ritual Sacrifice in Ancient Peru, edited by Elizabeth P. Benson and Anita Cook. Nahua Newsletter 32:27–33.Google Scholar
Sutter, Richard C., and Cortez, Rosa J. 2005 The Nature of Moche Human Sacrifice: A Bio-Archaeological Perspective. Current Anthropology 46:521–549.Google Scholar
Sugiyama, Saburo 2005 Human Sacrifice, Militarism and Rulership. Materialization of State Ideology at The Feathered Serpent Pyramid, Teotihuacan. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Swenson, Edward R. 2003 Cities of Violence. Sacrifice, Power and Urbanization in the Andes. Journal of Social Archaeology 3(2):256–296.Google Scholar
Tierney, Patrick 1989 The Highest Altar: The Story of Human Sacrifice. Viking Press, New York.Google Scholar
Torres-Rouff, Christina, Costa-Junqueira, María A., and Llagostera, Agustín 2005 Violence in Times of Change: The Late Intermediate Period in San Pedro de Atacama. Chungara 37(1):75–83.Google Scholar
Tung, Tiffiny A. 2007 From Corporeality to Sanctity. Transforming Bodies into Trophy Heads in the Pre-Hispanic Andes. In The Taking and Displaying of Human Body Parts as Trophies by Amerindians, edited by Richard J. Chacon and David H. Dye, pp. 481–504. Springer, New York.Google Scholar
Tung, Tiffiny A. 2008 Dismembering Bodies for Display: A Bioarchaeological Study of Trophy Heads from the Wari Site of Conchopata, Peru. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 136:294–308.Google Scholar
Ubbelhode-Doering, Heinrich 1983 Vorspaniche Gräber von Pacatnamú, Nordperu. Materialen zur meinen und Vergleichenden Archäologie, 26. Verlag C.H. Beck, München.Google Scholar
Ubelaker, Douglas H. 1992 Hyoid Fracture and Strangulation. Journal of Forensic Sciences 37:1216–1222.Google Scholar
Ühle, Max 1903 Pachacamac. Report of The William Pepper, M.D., LL.D. Peruvian Expedition of 1896. The Department of Archaeology of the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.Google Scholar
Valentin, Frédérique 2005 Sacrifice humain et sépultures anciennes de Mélanésie orientale et de Polynésie occidentale. In Le sacrifice humain en Egypte ancienne et ailleurs, edited by Jean-Pierre Albert and Béatrix Midant-Reynes, pp. 212–233. Editions Soleb, Paris.Google Scholar
Valeri, Valerio 1985 Kingship and Sacrifice: Ritual and Society in Ancient Hawaii. University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Valeri, Valerio 1994 Wild Victims: Hunting as Sacrifice and Sacrifice as Hunting in Huaulu. History of Religions 34(2): 101–31.Google Scholar
Valeri, Valerio 2000 The Forest of Taboos: Morality, Hunting and Identity Among the Huaulu of the Moluccas. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison.Google Scholar
Van Haeperen, Françoise 2004 Sacrifices humains et mises è mort rituelles è Rome: quelques observations. Folia Electronica Classica 8. Electronic document, available at http://bcs.fltr.ucl.ac.be/FE/08/sacrifices.htm, accessed May 26, 2008.Google Scholar
Van Haeperen, Françoise 2005 Mises è mort rituelles et violences politiques è Rome sous la République et sous l’Empire. Res Antiquae 2:327–346.Google Scholar
Velasco de Tord, Emma 1978 La K’apakocha: Sacrificios Humanos en el Incario. In Etnohistoria y Antropologia Andina, Primera Jornada del Museo Nacional de Historia, pp. 193–199. Lima.Google Scholar
Verano, John W. 1986 A Mass Burial of Mutilated Individuals at Pacatnamu. In The Pacatnamu Papers, Volume I, edited by Christopher B. Donnan and Guillermo Cock, pp. 117–138. Museum of Cultural History, University of California, Los Angeles.Google Scholar
Verano, John W. 1995 Where Do They Rest ? The Treatment of Human Offerings and Trophies in Ancient Peru. In Tombs for the Living: Andean Mortuary Practices, edited by Tom. D. Dillehay, pp. 189–228. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Verano, John W. 1998 Sacrificios humanos, desmembramientos y modificaciones culturales en restos osteológicos: Evidencias de las temporadas de investigación 1995-96. In Investigaciones en la Huaca de la Luna 1996, edited by Santiago Uceda, Elías Mujica, and Ricardo Morales, pp. 159–171. Facultad de Ciencias Sociales, Universidad Nacional de La Libertad, Trujillo.Google Scholar
Verano, John W. 2001a War and Death in the Moche World: Osteological Evidence and Visual Discourse. In Moche Art and Archaeology in Ancient Peru, edited by Joanne Pillsbury, pp. 111–125. Studies in History of Art, 63. National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C.Google Scholar
Verano, John W. 2001b The Physical Evidence of Human Sacrifice in Ancient Peru. In Ritual Sacrifice in Ancient Peru, edited by Elizabeth Benson and Anita Cook, pp. 165–184. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Verano, John W. 2006 Human Sacrifice at El Brujo, Northern Peru. Report on 2005 Summer Field Research. Report to the National Geographic Society’s Committee for Research and Exploration and the Roger Thayer Stone Center for Latin American Studies.Google Scholar
Verano, John W. 2007 Conflict and Conquest in Prehispanic Andean South America: Archaeological and Osteological Evidence. In Latin American Indigenous Warfare and Ritual Violence, edited by Richard Chacon and Ruben Mendoza, pp. 105–115. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Verano, John W. 2008 Trophy Head-Taking and Human Sacrifice in Andean South America. In Handbook of South American Archaeology, edited by Helaine Silverman and William H. Isbell, pp. 1047–1060. Springer, New York.Google Scholar
Verano, John W., and Cordy-Collins, Alana 1986 H1M1: A Late Intermediate Period Mortuary Structure at Pacatnamu. In The Pacatnamu Papers, Volume 1, edited by Christopher B. Donnan and Guillermo Cock, pp. 85–94. Museum of Cultural History, University of California, Los Angeles.Google Scholar
Verano, John W., Uceda, Santiago, Chapdelaine, Claude, Tello, Ricardo, Paredes, Maria, and Pimentel, Victor 1999 Modified Human Skulls from the Urban Sector of the Pyramids of Moche, Northern Peru. Latin American Antiquity 10:59–70.Google Scholar
Vesci, Uma Marina 1986 Heat and Sacrifice in the Vedas. Motilal Banarsidass Ed., Delhi. Wessing, Robert, and Roy E. Jordaan 1997 Death at the Building Site: Construction Sacrifice in Southeast Asia. History of Religions 37(2): 101–121.Google Scholar
Woolley, Leonard 1934 The Royal Cemetery. Ur Excavation, vol.II. British Museum, London Google Scholar
Wright, GRH 1979 The Egyptian Sparagmos. Mitteilungen des Deutschen archäologischen lnstituts, abteilung Kairo (MDAIK) 35:345–358.Google Scholar
Yoyotte, Jean 1980–81 Héra d’Héliopolis et le sacrifice humain. Annuaire de l’EPHE, Ve Section 89:31–102.Google Scholar