Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-j824f Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-15T10:44:27.781Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Ideology and Networks: The Politics of Social Policy Diffusion in Brazil

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 September 2022

Natasha Borges Sugiyama
Natasha Borges Sugiyama*
Affiliation:
University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

Brazil's constitution (1988) granted municipalities the responsibility of providing social services. Many observers anticipated that this newfound authority would produce policy diversity, as local governments would tailor programs to constituents' needs. Instead, many municipalities chose to replicate programs made famous elsewhere. What explains this diffusion of social policies across Brazil? In particular, what motivates policy makers to emulate “innovative” policies? This study compares three approaches that seek to explain political behavior: political self-interest, ideology, and socialized norms. It draws on two policies, Bolsa Escola, an education program, and Programa Saúde da Família, a family health program, in four exemplary cities, to uncover the mechanisms that led to diffusion. Surprisingly, political incentives, such as electoral competition, cannot explain diffusion. Rather, ideology and socialized norms, transmitted through social networks, drive policy emulation. Diffusion occurs when politicians are ideologically compelled to replicate these programs and when policy specialists seek to demonstrate that they follow professional norms.

Resumo

Resumo

La constitución de Brasil (1988) otorgó a las municipalidades la responsabilidad de proveer servicios sociales. Para muchos esta facultad se traduciría en políticas diversas, pues los gobiernos locales diseñarían sus programas en función de las necesidades de sus electores. No obstante muchas municipalidades eligieron replicar programas reconocidos en otros lugares. ¿Qué explica esta difusión de políticas sociales? ¿Qué motiva a los policy makers a emular políticas innovadoras? Este estudio contrasta tres aproximaciones que buscan explicar este comportamiento político: interés político propio, ideología y normas socialmente difundidas. A partir de dos iniciativas, Bolsa Escola, un programa educativo, y Saúde da Familia, un programa de salud para las familias, y con base en cuatro ciudades, se pretende descubrir los mecanismos detrás de la difusión. Sorprendentemente los incentivos políticos, vinculados a la competencia electoral, no explican la difusión, en contraste con la ideología y las normas difundidas a través de redes sociales. La difusión ocurre cuando los políticos están ideológicamente inclinados a replicar programas, y cuando especialistas en la materia buscan demostrar que éstos se ajustan a normas profesionales.

Type
Research Article
Information
Latin American Research Review , Volume 43 , Issue 3 , 2008 , pp. 82 - 108
Copyright
Copyright © 2008 by the University of Texas Press

Footnotes

*

The author thanks Wendy Hunter, Kurt Weyland, Raúl Madrid, Brian Wampler, and LARR's anonymous reviewers for comments on earlier drafts of this article. The Fulbright and AED-Boren fellowship programs generously provided funding for fieldwork included in this article. The writing of this article was also facilitated by grants from the Spencer Foundation and the Department of Government at the University of Texas at Austin.

References

References

Abers, Rebecca 2000 Inventing Local Democracy. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aguiar, Marcelo, and Araújo, Carlos Henrique 2002 Bolsa-Escola: Education to Confront Poverty. Brasília: UNESCO.Google Scholar
Araújo, Carlos Henrique, and de Souza, Nair Heloísa Bicalho, eds. 1998 Programas de Renda Mínima no Brasil, vol. 2. São Paulo: Pólis.Google Scholar
Arretche, Marta 2000 Estado federativo e políticas sociais. Rio de Janeiro: Éditora Reven.Google Scholar
Arretche, Marta 2004 “Federalismo e políticas sociais no Brasil.” São Paulo em Perspectiva 18 (2): 17–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arretche, Marta, and Marques, Eduardo 2002 “Municipalização da saúde no Brasil.” Ciência & Saúde Coletiva 7 (3): 455–479.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baiocchi, Gianpaolo 2003 “Emergent Public Spheres.” American Sociological Review 68 (1): 47–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baila, Steven J. 2001 “Interstate Professional Associations and the Diffusion of Policy Innovations.” American Politics Research 29 (3): 221–245.Google Scholar
Bava, Silvio Caccia, et. al. 1999 “Bolsa-Escola.” Paper presented at Seminario Internacional: Reformas a la Política Social en América Latina, May 11–12, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Berry, Frances Stokes, and Berry, William D. 1990 “State Lottery Adoptions as Policy Innovations.” American Political Science Review 84 (2): 395–415.Google Scholar
Berry, Frances Stokes, and Berry, William D. 1992 “Tax Innovation in the States.” American Journal of Political Science 36 (3): 715–742.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Box-Steffensmeier, Janet M., and Jones, Bradford S. 2004 Event History Modeling. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brinks, Daniel, and Coppedge, Michael 2006 “Diffusion Is No Illusion: Neighbor Emulation in the Third Wave of Democracy.” Comparative Political Studies 39 (5): 463–489.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carmines, Edward G., and Stimson, James A. 1993 “On the Evolution of Political Issues.” In Agenda Formation, edited by Riker, William, 151–168. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Cohn, Amélia 1989 “Caminhos da Reforma Sanitária.” Lua Nova 19:123–140.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Collier, David, and Messick, Richard E. 1975 “Prerequisites versus Diffusion.” American Political Science Review 69 (4): 1299–1315.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coppedge, Michael 1996 “A Classification of Latin American Political Parties.” Unpublished manuscript, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN.Google Scholar
Costa, Cláudia Soares Costa, and Visconti, Gabriel Rangel 2001 “Terceiro Setor e desenvolvimento social.” Rio de Janeiro: Banco Nacional de Desenvolvimento Econãomico e Social.Google Scholar
Cueto, Marcos 2004 “The Origins of Primary Health Care and Selective Primary Healthcare.” American Journal of Public Health 94 (11): 1864–1874.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Derthick, Martha 1970 The Influence of Federal Grants. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DiMaggio, Paul J., and Powell, Walter W. 1983 “The Iron Cage (Revisited).” American Sociological Review 48 (2): 147–160.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Draibe, Sonia 2004 “Federal Leverage in a Decentralized System.” In Crucial Needs, Weak Incentives, edited by Kaufman, Robert and Nelson, Joan, 375–406. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Draibe, Sônia Miriam, Arretche, Marta Teresa S., da Fonseca, Ana Maria Medeiros, Souza, Aparecida Neride, DiGiovanni, Geraldo, Amaral, Helena Kerr, Rubens, Juarez, and Lopes, Brandão 1994 “Estratégias para combater a probreza no Brasil.” Working Paper 190, Inter-American Development Bank, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Elkins, Zachary, and Simmons, Beth 2005 “On Waves, Clusters, and Diffusion.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 598 (1): 33–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Encarnación, Omar G. 2003 The Myth of Civil Society. New York: Palgrave MacMillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Escorel, Sarah 1999 Reviravolta na saúde. Rio de Janiero: Editora Fiocruz.Google Scholar
Finnemore, Martha 1993 “International Organizations as Teachers of Norms.” International Organization 47 (4): 565–597.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fleury, Sonia, Bahia, Lígia, and Amarante, Paulo, eds. 2007 Saúde em debate. Rio de Janeiro: Editora Cebes.Google Scholar
Fleury, Sonia, Belmartino, Susana, and Baris, Enis 2001 Reshaping Health Care in Latin America. Canada: International Development Research Centre.Google Scholar
Friedkin, Noah E. 1993 “Structural Bases of Interpersonal Influence in Groups.” American Sociological Review 58 (6): 861–872.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Geddes, Barbara 1990 “How the Cases You Choose Affect the Answers You Get.” Political Analysis 2 (1): 131–150.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gerring, John 1997 “Ideology.” Political Research Quarterly 50 (4): 957–994.Google Scholar
Granovetter, Mark 1973 “The Strength of Weak Ties.” American Journal of Sociology 78 (6): 1360–1380.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Granovetter, Mark 1983 “The Strength of Weak Ties (Revisited).” Sociological Theory 1:201–233.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gray, Virginia 1973 “Innovation in the States: A Diffusion Study.” American Political Science Review 67 (4): 1174–1185.Google Scholar
Grindle, Merilee Serrill 2004 Despite the Odds. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Horne, Christine 2001 “Sociological Perspectives on the Emergence of Social Norms.” In Social Norms, edited by Hechter, Michael and Opp, Karl-Dieter, 3–34. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
Jacobo Waiselfisz, Julio, Abramovay, Miriam, and Andrade, Carla 1998 Bolsa Escola: Melhoria educacional e redução da pobreza. Brasília: UNESCO.Google Scholar
Karch, Andrew 2007 Democratic Laboratories. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaufman, Robert R. 1999 “Approaches to the Study of State Reform in Latin American and Postsocialist Countries.” Comparative Politics 31 (3): 357–375.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaufman, Robert R., and Nelson, Joan M., eds. 2004 Crucial Needs, Weak Incentives. Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center Press.Google Scholar
Keck, Margaret E., and Sikkink, Kathryn 1998 Activists beyond Borders. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Kilduff, Martin, and Tsai, Wenpin 2003 Social Networks and Organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kingdon, John W. 1995 Agendas, Alternatives, and Public Policies (2nd ed.). New York: Longman.Google Scholar
Lavinas, Lena, and de Oliveira Barbosa, Maria Ligia 2000 “Combater a pobreza estimulando a freqüência escolar.” DADOS: Revista de Ciências Sociais 43 (3): 447–477.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lavinas, Lena, de Oliveira Barbosa, Maria Ligia, and Tourinho, Octávio 2001 Assessing Local Minimum Income Programs in Brazil. Geneva: International Labour Organisation/World Bank.Google Scholar
Levi-Faur, David 2005 “The Global Diffusion of Regulatory Capitalism.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 598:12–32.Google Scholar
Lobato, Ana Lucia, and Urani, André, eds. 1998 Garantia de Renda Mínima. Brasília: Instituto de Pesquisa Económica Aplicada.Google Scholar
Lowi, Theodore 1963 “Toward Functionalism in Political Science.” American Political Science Review 57 (3): 570–583.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mainwaring, Scott 1999 Rethinking Party Systems in the Third Wave of Democratization. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Martins, Roberto Borges, and Libânio, José Carlos, eds. 2005 Atlas do desenvolvimento humano no Brasil (accessed May 17, 2005, at http://www.pnud.org.br/atlas).Google Scholar
McAdam, Doug, and Rucht, Dieter 1993 “The Cross-National Diffusion of Movement Ideas.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 528:56–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mello, Carlos Gentile de 1977 Saúde e assistência médica no Brasil. São Paulo: CEBES-HUCITEC.Google Scholar
Meseguer, Covadonga, and Gilardi, Fabrizio 2005 What Is New in the Study of Policy Diffusion? Unpublished manuscript, Centro de Investigación y Docencia Económicas, Mexico City.Google Scholar
Ministry of Health (Brazil) 1997 Saúde da família. Brasília: Ministry of Health.Google Scholar
Ministry of Justice (Brazil) 2005 Online registry of civil society public interest organizations (accessed May 17, 2005, at http://www.mj.gov.br/snj/oscip/).Google Scholar
Mintrom, Michael 1997 “Policy Entrepreneurs and the Diffusion of Innovation.” American Journal of Political Science 41 (3): 738–770.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mooney, Christopher Z. 2001 “Modeling Regional Effects on State Policy Diffusion.” Political Research Quarterly 54 (1): 103–124.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mooney, Christopher Z., and Lee, Mei-Hsien 1995 “Legislating Morality in the American States: The Case of Pre-Roe Abortion Regulation Reform.” American Journal of Political Science 39 (3): 599–627.Google Scholar
Mossberger, Karen 1999 “State-Federal Diffusion and Policy Learning.” Publius 29 (3): 31–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mullins, Willard A. 1972 “On the Concept of Ideology in Political Science.” American Political Science Review 66 (2): 498–510.Google Scholar
North, Douglass C. 1981 Structure and Change in Economic History. New York: Norton.Google Scholar
North, Douglass C. 1990 Institutions, Institutional Change, and Economic Performance. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Orenstein, Mitchell 2003 “Mapping the Diffusion of Pension Innovation.” In Pension Reform in Europe, edited by Holzmann, Robert, Orenstein, Mitchell, and Rutkowski, Michal, 171–194. Washington, DC: World Bank.Google Scholar
Passy, Florence 2003 “Social Networks Matter, but How?” In Social Movements and Networks, edited by Diani, Mario and McAdam, Doug, 21–48. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Paulics, Veronika 2000 125 Dicas: Ideais para a ação municipal. São Paulo/Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Pólis/Banco Nacional de Desenvolvimento Económico e Social.Google Scholar
Riker, William H., and Ordeshook, Peter C. 1973 An Introduction to Positive Political Theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.Google Scholar
Rogers, Everett M. 2003 Diffusion of Innovations. 5th ed. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Rose, Douglas D. 1973 “National and Local Forces in State Politics.” American Political Science Review 67 (4): 1162–1173.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Samuels, David 2000 “Reinventing Local Government.” In Democratic Brazil: Actors, Institutions, and Processes, edited by Kingstone, Peter and Power, Timothy, 77–98. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press.Google Scholar
Simmons, Beth A., and Elkins, Zachary 2004 “The Globalization of Liberalization.” American Political Science Review 98 (1): 171–189.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sugiyama, Natasha Borges 2008 “Theories of Diffusion: Social Sector Reform in Brazil.” Comparative Political Studies 41 (2): 193–216.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tendler, Judith 1997 Good Government in the Tropics. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
True, Jacqui, and Mintrom, Michael 2001 “Transnational Networks and Policy Diffusion.” International Studies Quarterly 45 (1): 27–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vawda, Ayesha 2000 Brazil: Stipends to Increase School Enrollment and Decrease Child Labor, A Case of Demand-Side Financing (accessed May 9, 2002, at http://www.ifc.org/edinvest/brazil.htm).Google Scholar
Viana, Ana Luiza D'Ávila, and Poz, Mario Roberto Dal 1998 “A reforma do sistema de saúde no Brasil e o Programa de Saúde da Família.” PHYSIS: Revista Saúde Coletiva 8 (2): 11–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Villatoro, Pablo 2004 Programas de reducción de la pobreza en América Latina. (No. 87). Santiago, Chile: Comisión Económica para Ámerica Latina y el Caribe.Google Scholar
Walker, Jack L. 1969 “The Diffusion of Innovations among the American States.” American Political Science Review 63 (3): 880–899.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wampler, Brian, and Avritzer, Leonardo 2004 “Participatory Publics.” Comparative Politics 36 (3): 291–312.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weyland, Kurt 2004 Learning from Foreign Models in Latin American Policy Reform. Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center Press.Google Scholar
Weyland, Kurt 2005 “Theories of Policy Diffusion.” World Politics 57 (2): 262–295.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Interviews

Andrade, Luis Odorico de. President of CONASEMS and Municipal Secretary of Health of Sobral (CE), March 20,2004, Natal.Google Scholar
Aguiar, Marcelo. Chief of staff at Ministry of Education, November 24,2003, Brasilia. Araujo, Raimundo Caires. Municipal secretary of work and social development, July 2004, Salvador.Google Scholar
Bandeira, Celia. Former special secretary for monitoring under Lidice da Mata, July 9,2004, Salvador.Google Scholar
Bisol, Jairo. Public prosecutor, Public Prosecutor’s Office of Federal District, May 4, 2004, Brasilia.Google Scholar
Buarque, Cristovam. Former governor of the Federal District, April 26,2004, Brasilia. Conceigao, Maria Jose (Maninha) da. Former health secretary of the Federal District, December 1,2003, Brasilia.Google Scholar
Cunha, Celio da. National programme officer, UNESCO, January 22,2004, Brasilia.Google Scholar
Escorel de Moraes, Sarah Maria. Professor at Fundagao Oswaldo Cruz and consultant to Ministry of Health, March 2004, Natal.Google Scholar
Franco, Tulio Batista. Adjunct secretary of health of Belo Horizonte, February 12,2004, Belo Horizonte.Google Scholar
Geddes, Jose. Former state secretary of health of Sao Paulo, November 4,2003, Sao Paulo. Jatene, Adib. Former minister of health, October 16,2003, Sao Paulo.Google Scholar
Leitao, Elizabeth. Former director of Bolsa Escola of Belo Horizonte, January 19, 2004, Brasilia.Google Scholar
Machado, Heloisa. Former director of PSF at the Health Ministry, November 21, 2003, Brasilia.Google Scholar
Magalhaes, Ines. Former official at Workers’ Party national headquarters, January 28,2004, Brasilia.Google Scholar
Martins Alves Sobrinho, Eduardo Jorge. Former secretary of health in Sao Paulo, March 19, 2004, Natal.Google Scholar
Mata, Lidice da. Former mayor of Salvador, July 16,2004, Salvador.Google Scholar
Meneses, Milton. Director of PSF in the Federal District, January 2004, Brasilia.Google Scholar
Nossa, Sonia. Staff member of PSF, Municipal Department of Health. June 28, 2004, Salvador.Google Scholar
Rocha, Sonia Former Instituto de Pesquisa Economica Aplicada researcher, October 21Google Scholar
Rocha, Sonia. 2003, Rio de Janeiro..Google Scholar
Santos, Fausto Perreira. Former adjunct secretary of health in Belo Horizonte, January 26Google Scholar
Santos, Fausto Perreira 2004, Brasilia.Google Scholar
Pacheco, Marisa Former coordinator of Bolsa Escola. Department of Education of the Federal District, January 27,2004, Brasilia.Google Scholar
Paixao, Marcia. Coordinator of Municipal Renda Minima Program of Sao Paulo, October 9, 2003, Sao Paulo.Google Scholar
Pochman, Marcio. Secretary of workforce and development, November 4,2003, Sao Paulo. Sousa, Maria Fatima de. Chief of staff at Ministry of Health, December 1,2003, Brasilia. Souza, Paulo Renato. Former minister of education, April 16,2004, Sao Paulo.Google Scholar
Suplicy, Eduardo. Senator, October 31, 2003, Sao Paulo.Google Scholar
Turci, Maria. Adviser to the Department of Basic Health, Municipal Department of Health, February 16,2004, Belo Horizonte.Google Scholar