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EPIDEMIOLOGICAL EVIDENCE IN PROOF OF SPECIFIC CAUSATION

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  21 November 2011

Alex Broadbent
Alex Broadbent*
Affiliation:
University of Johannesburg, Department of Philosophya.b.broadbent@gmail.com, abbroadbent@uj.ac.za
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Abstract

This paper seeks to determine the significance, if any, of epidemiological evidence to prove the specific causation element of liability in negligence or other relevant torts—in particular, what importance can be attached to a relative risk (RR) > 2, where that figure represents a sound causal inference at the general level. The paper discusses increased risk approaches to epidemiological evidence and concludes that they are a last resort. The paper also criticizes the proposal that the probability of causation can be estimated with reference to the RR, such that RR > 2 is necessary and sufficient for causation. It is argued, following arguments by Sander Greenland and others, that RR > 2 is not necessary for proof of specific causation, except under restrictive biological assumptions that are not known to be satisfied for any important disease, and therefore must never be required. However, the paper argues that in some circumstances RR > 2 can be sufficient to prove causation at law. This position is defended against the widely held judicial and academic view that epidemiological evidence must be accompanied by something else, particular to the case at hand, if it is to have probative force for specific causation. It is argued that far from being epistemically irrelevant, to achieve correct and just outcomes it is in fact mandatory to take (high-quality) epidemiological evidence into account in deciding specific causation. Failing to consider such evidence when it is available leads to error and injustice. The conclusion is that in certain circumstances epidemiological evidence of RR > 2 is not necessary to prove specific causation but that it is sufficient. This “sufficiency” is confined to circumstances where there is no other evidence, as a way of getting clear on what the epidemiological evidence says. Once we have worked out what it says, this must be weighed against the other relevant evidence, if there is any.

Type
Research Article
Information
Legal Theory , Volume 17 , Issue 4 , December 2011 , pp. 237 - 278
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2011

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References

REFERENCES

Barker v. Corus U.K. Ltd., [2006] UKHL 20, [2006] 2 A.C. 572.Google Scholar
Fairchild v. Glenhaven Funeral Services Ltd. & Others, [2003] 1 A.C. 32.Google Scholar
Gregg v. Scott, [2005] 2 A.C. 176.Google Scholar
Hotson v. East Berkshire Area Health Authority, [1987] 1 A.C. 750 (H.L.).Google Scholar
McGhee v. National Coal Board, [1973] 1 W.L.R. 1 (H.L.).Google Scholar
Novartis Grimsby v. John Cookson, [2007] EWCA (Civ) 1261.Google Scholar
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XYZ & Others v. Schering Health Care Ltd., [2002] EWHC 1420 (Q.B.).Google Scholar
McTear v. Imperial Tobacco Ltd., [2005] CSOH 69.Google Scholar
Smith v. McNair,[2008] CSOH 154, [2008] GWD 38–570.Google Scholar
In re “Agent Orange” Product Liability Litigation, 597 F. Supp. 740 (E.D.N.Y. 1984).Google Scholar
Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 509 U.S. 579 (1993).Google Scholar
Day v. Boston & Marine R.R., 96 Me. 207, 52 A. 771 (1902).Google Scholar
United States v. Shonubi, 895 F. Supp. 460 (E.D.N.Y. 1995).Google Scholar
Bennett, Jonathan. (2003) A Philosophical Guide to Conditionals (Oxford University Press).Google Scholar
Beyea, Jan, and Greenland, Sander. (1999) “The Importance of Specifying the Underlying Biologic Model in Estimating the Probability of Causation.” Health Physics 76: 269–274.Google Scholar
Black, Robert. (1998) “Chance, Credence and the Principal Principle.” British Journal for the Philosophy of Science 49: 371–385.Google Scholar
Bond, Victor P. (1960) “The Medical Effects of Radiation.” In NACCA 13th Annual Convention 1959, 126.Google Scholar
Broadbent, Alex. (2011) “Causal Inference in Epidemiology: Mechanisms, Black Boxes, and Contrasts.” In Illari, Phyllis McKay, Russo, Federica, and Williamson, Jon, eds., Causality in the Sciences, 45–69 (Oxford University Press).Google Scholar
Broadbent, Alex. (2009) “Fact and Law in the Causal Inquiry.” Legal Theory 15: 173–191.Google Scholar
Carruth, Russelyn S., and Goldstein, Bernard D.. (2001) “Relative Risk Greater than Two in Proof of Causation in Toxic Tort Litigation.” Jurimetrics 41: 195–209.Google Scholar
Cohen, L. Jonathan. (1977) The Probable and the Provable (Clarendon Press).Google Scholar
Collins, John, Hall, Ned, and Paul, L.A.. (2004) Causation and Counterfactuals (MIT Press).Google Scholar
Dore, Michael. (1983) “Commentary on the Use of Epidemiological Evidence in Demonstrating Cause-in-Fact.” Harvard Environmental Law Review 7: 429–448.Google Scholar
Finkelstein, Claire. (2003) “Is Risk a Harm?” University of Pennsylvania Law Review 151: 963–1001.Google Scholar
Finkelstein, M., and Fairley, W.. (1970) “A Bayesian Approach to Identification Evidence.” Harvard Law Review 83: 489.Google Scholar
Finley, Lucinda M. (1999) “Guarding the Gate to the Courthouse: How Trial Judges Are Using Their Evidentiary Screening Role to Remake Tort Causation Rules.” DePaul Law Review 49: 335–376.Google Scholar
Fumerton, Richard, and Kress, Ken. (2001) “Causation and the Law: Preemption, Lawful Sufficiency and Causal Sufficiency.” Law and Contemporary Problems 64: 83–105.Google Scholar
Geistfeld, Mark. (2001) “Scientific Uncertainty and Causation in Tort Law.” Vanderbilt Law Review 54: 1011–1037.Google Scholar
Gold, Steve. (1986) “Causation in Toxic Torts.” Yale Law Journal 96: 376–402.Google Scholar
Green, Michael D. (2005) “The Future of Proportional Responsibility.” In Madden, M. Stuart, ed., Exploring Tort Law, 352–400 (Cambridge University Press).Google Scholar
Green, Michael D., Freedman, D. Michal, and Gordis, Leon. (n.d.) “Reference Guide on Epidemiology.” In Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence (Federal Judicial Center). Available at http://www.fjc.gov/public/pdf.nsf/lookup/sciman06.pdf/$file/sciman06.pdf.Google Scholar
Greenland, Sander. (1999) “Relation of Probability of Causation to Relative Risk and Doubling Dose: A Methodologic Error That Has Become a Social Problem.” American Journal of Public Health 89: 1166–1169.Google Scholar
Greenland, Sander. (2004) “The Need for Critical Appraisal of Expert Witnesses in Epidemiology and Statistics.” Wake Forest Law Review 39: 291–310.Google Scholar
Greenland, Sander, and Robins, James. (1988) “Conceptual Problems in the Definition and Interpretation of Attributable Fractions.” American Journal of Epidemiology 128: 1185–1197.Google Scholar
Greenland, Sander, and Robins, James. (2000) “Epidemiology, Justice, and the Probability of Causation.” Jurimetrics 40: 321.Google Scholar
Haack, Susan. (forthcoming) “Risky Business: Statistical Proof of Individual Causation.” In Beltrán, Jordi Ferrer, ed., Casuación y atribución de responsibilidad (Madrid: Marcial Pons). English version available from the author at .Google Scholar
Hart, H.L.A., and Honoré, A.. (1985) Causation in the Law. 2nd ed. (Clarendon Press).Google Scholar
Hill, Austin Bradford. (1965) “The Environment and Disease: Association or Causation?” Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine 58: 259–300.Google Scholar
Hume, David. (2000) (1748) An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding: A Critical Edition. Edited by Beauchamp, Tom L. (Clarendon Press; Oxford University Press).Google Scholar
Kahneman, Daniel, and Tversky, Amos. (1973) “On the Psychology of Prediction.” Psychological Review 80: 237–257.Google Scholar
Last, John M. (1995) A Dictionary of Epidemiology. 3rd ed. (Oxford University Press).Google Scholar
Lewis, David. (1986) “Causal Explanation.” In Philosophical Papers, vol. 2, 214–241 (Oxford University Press).Google Scholar
Lewis, David. (1986) “A Subjectivist's Guide to Objective Chance.” In Philosophical Papers, vol. 2, 83–113. (Oxford University Press).Google Scholar
Lewis, David. (1979) “Counterfactual Dependence and Time's Arrow.” Noûs 13: 455–476.Google Scholar
Lewis, David. (1973) Counterfactuals (Harvard University Press).Google Scholar
Lewis, David. (1973) “Counterfactuals and Comparative Possibility.” Journal of Philosophical Logic 2: 418–446.Google Scholar
Lipton, Peter. (2004) Inference to the Best Explanation. 2d ed. (Routledge).Google Scholar
Lipton, Peter. (2000) “Tracking Track Records.” Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society 74 (suppl.): 179–205.Google Scholar
Malone, Wex. (1956) “Ruminations on Cause-In-Fact.” Stanford Law Review 9: 60–99.Google Scholar
Mellor, Hugh. (2005) Probability: A Philosophical Introduction (Routledge).Google Scholar
Miller, Chris. (2006) “Causation in Personal Injury: Legal or Epidemiological Common Sense?” Legal Studies 26: 544–569.Google Scholar
Miller, Chris. (2009) “Liability for Negligently Increased Risk: The Repercussions of Barker v. Corus U.K. (PLC).” Law, Probability and Risk 8: 39–54.Google Scholar
Nesson, Charles. (1986) “Agent Orange Meets the Blue Bus: Factfinding at the Frontier of Knowledge.” Boston University Law Review 66: 521–539.Google Scholar
Nesson, Charles. (1985) “The Evidence or the Event? On Judicial Proof and the Acceptability of Verdicts.” Harvard Law Review 98: 1357.Google Scholar
Nozick, Robert. (1981) Philosophical Explanations (Harvard University Press).Google Scholar
Owen, David. (1987) “Hume Versus Price on Miracles and Prior Probabilities: Testimony and the Bayesian Calculation.” Philosophical Quarterly 37: 187–202.Google Scholar
Parascandola, Mark. (1998) “What Is Wrong with the Probability of Causation?” Jurimetrics 39: 29–44.Google Scholar
Petitti, Diana. (1996) Review. “Reference Guide on Epidemiology.” Jurimetrics 36: 159–168.Google Scholar
Poole, Charles. (2010) “On the Origin of Risk Relativism.” Epidemiology 21: 3–9.Google Scholar
Robins, James, and Greenland, Sander. (1989) “The Probability of Causation under a Stochastic Model for Individual Risk.” Biometrics 45: 1125–1138.Google Scholar
Rockett, R.H. (1999) “Population and Health: An Introduction to Epidemiology.” Population Bulletin 54: 1–44.Google Scholar
Rothman, Kenneth J, Greenland, Sander, and Lash, Timothy L. (2008) Modern Epidemiology. 3rd ed. (Lippincott Williams & Wilkins).Google Scholar
See, Andrew. (2000) “Use of Human Epidemiology Studies in Proving Causation.” Defence Counsel Journal 67: 478–487.Google Scholar
Stapleton, Jane. (2010) “Factual Causation and Asbestos Cancers.” Law Quarterly Review 126: 351.Google Scholar
Steel, Sandy. (2010) “Uncertainty over Causal Uncertainty: Karen Sienkiewicz (Administratrix of the Estate of Enid Costello Deceased) v. Greif (U.K.) Ltd.” Modern Law Review 73: 631–655.Google Scholar
Thomson, Melissa Moore. (1992) “Causal Inference in Epidemiology: Implications for Toxic Tort Litigation.” North Carolina Law Review 71: 247–292.Google Scholar
Tillers, Peter. (2005) “If Wishes Were Horses: Discursive Comments on Attempts to Prevent Individuals from Being Unfairly Burdened by Their Reference Classes.” Law, Probability and Risk 4: 33–49.Google Scholar
Tribe, Laurence. (1971) “Trial by Mathematics: Precision and Ritual in the Legal Process.” Harvard Law Review 84: 1329.Google Scholar
Voyiakis, Emmanuel. (2009) “The Great Illusion: Tort Law and Exposure to Danger of Physical Harm.” Modern Law Review 72: 909–935.Google Scholar
Williamson, Timothy. (2000) Knowledge and Its Limits (Oxford University Press).Google Scholar
Wright, Richard. (1985) “Causation in Tort Law.” California Law Review 73: 1735–1828.Google Scholar
Wright, Richard. (1988) “Causation, Responsibility, Risk, Probability, Naked Statistics, and Proof: Pruning the Bramble Bush by Clarifying the Concepts.” Iowa Law Review 73: 1001–1077.Google Scholar
Wright, Richard. (2008) “Liability for Possible Wrongs: Causation, Statistical Probability, and the Burden of Proof.” Loyola of Los Angeles Law Review 41: 1295–1344.Google Scholar
Barker v. Corus U.K. Ltd., [2006] UKHL 20, [2006] 2 A.C. 572.Google Scholar
Fairchild v. Glenhaven Funeral Services Ltd. & Others, [2003] 1 A.C. 32.Google Scholar
Gregg v. Scott, [2005] 2 A.C. 176.Google Scholar
Hotson v. East Berkshire Area Health Authority, [1987] 1 A.C. 750 (H.L.).Google Scholar
McGhee v. National Coal Board, [1973] 1 W.L.R. 1 (H.L.).Google Scholar
Novartis Grimsby v. John Cookson, [2007] EWCA (Civ) 1261.Google Scholar
Sienkiewicz (Administratrix of the Estate of Enid Costello Dcd.) v. Greif (U.K.) Ltd., [2011] UKSC 10.Google Scholar
Sienkiewicz (Administratrix of the Estate of Enid Costello Dcd.) v. Greif (U.K.) Ltd., [2009] EWCA (Civ) 1159; [2009] EWCA (Civ) 1211.Google Scholar
XYZ & Others v. Schering Health Care Ltd., [2002] EWHC 1420 (Q.B.).Google Scholar
McTear v. Imperial Tobacco Ltd., [2005] CSOH 69.Google Scholar
Smith v. McNair,[2008] CSOH 154, [2008] GWD 38–570.Google Scholar
In re “Agent Orange” Product Liability Litigation, 597 F. Supp. 740 (E.D.N.Y. 1984).Google Scholar
Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 509 U.S. 579 (1993).Google Scholar
Day v. Boston & Marine R.R., 96 Me. 207, 52 A. 771 (1902).Google Scholar
United States v. Shonubi, 895 F. Supp. 460 (E.D.N.Y. 1995).Google Scholar
Barker v. Corus U.K. Ltd., [2006] UKHL 20, [2006] 2 A.C. 572.Google Scholar
Fairchild v. Glenhaven Funeral Services Ltd. & Others, [2003] 1 A.C. 32.Google Scholar
Gregg v. Scott, [2005] 2 A.C. 176.Google Scholar
Hotson v. East Berkshire Area Health Authority, [1987] 1 A.C. 750 (H.L.).Google Scholar
McGhee v. National Coal Board, [1973] 1 W.L.R. 1 (H.L.).Google Scholar
Novartis Grimsby v. John Cookson, [2007] EWCA (Civ) 1261.Google Scholar
Sienkiewicz (Administratrix of the Estate of Enid Costello Dcd.) v. Greif (U.K.) Ltd., [2011] UKSC 10.Google Scholar
Sienkiewicz (Administratrix of the Estate of Enid Costello Dcd.) v. Greif (U.K.) Ltd., [2009] EWCA (Civ) 1159; [2009] EWCA (Civ) 1211.Google Scholar
XYZ & Others v. Schering Health Care Ltd., [2002] EWHC 1420 (Q.B.).Google Scholar
McTear v. Imperial Tobacco Ltd., [2005] CSOH 69.Google Scholar
Smith v. McNair,[2008] CSOH 154, [2008] GWD 38–570.Google Scholar
In re “Agent Orange” Product Liability Litigation, 597 F. Supp. 740 (E.D.N.Y. 1984).Google Scholar
Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 509 U.S. 579 (1993).Google Scholar
Day v. Boston & Marine R.R., 96 Me. 207, 52 A. 771 (1902).Google Scholar
United States v. Shonubi, 895 F. Supp. 460 (E.D.N.Y. 1995).Google Scholar
Bennett, Jonathan. (2003) A Philosophical Guide to Conditionals (Oxford University Press).Google Scholar
Beyea, Jan, and Greenland, Sander. (1999) “The Importance of Specifying the Underlying Biologic Model in Estimating the Probability of Causation.” Health Physics 76: 269–274.Google Scholar
Black, Robert. (1998) “Chance, Credence and the Principal Principle.” British Journal for the Philosophy of Science 49: 371–385.Google Scholar
Bond, Victor P. (1960) “The Medical Effects of Radiation.” In NACCA 13th Annual Convention 1959, 126.Google Scholar
Broadbent, Alex. (2011) “Causal Inference in Epidemiology: Mechanisms, Black Boxes, and Contrasts.” In Illari, Phyllis McKay, Russo, Federica, and Williamson, Jon, eds., Causality in the Sciences, 45–69 (Oxford University Press).Google Scholar
Broadbent, Alex. (2009) “Fact and Law in the Causal Inquiry.” Legal Theory 15: 173–191.Google Scholar
Carruth, Russelyn S., and Goldstein, Bernard D.. (2001) “Relative Risk Greater than Two in Proof of Causation in Toxic Tort Litigation.” Jurimetrics 41: 195–209.Google Scholar
Cohen, L. Jonathan. (1977) The Probable and the Provable (Clarendon Press).Google Scholar
Collins, John, Hall, Ned, and Paul, L.A.. (2004) Causation and Counterfactuals (MIT Press).Google Scholar
Dore, Michael. (1983) “Commentary on the Use of Epidemiological Evidence in Demonstrating Cause-in-Fact.” Harvard Environmental Law Review 7: 429–448.Google Scholar
Finkelstein, Claire. (2003) “Is Risk a Harm?” University of Pennsylvania Law Review 151: 963–1001.Google Scholar
Finkelstein, M., and Fairley, W.. (1970) “A Bayesian Approach to Identification Evidence.” Harvard Law Review 83: 489.Google Scholar
Finley, Lucinda M. (1999) “Guarding the Gate to the Courthouse: How Trial Judges Are Using Their Evidentiary Screening Role to Remake Tort Causation Rules.” DePaul Law Review 49: 335–376.Google Scholar
Fumerton, Richard, and Kress, Ken. (2001) “Causation and the Law: Preemption, Lawful Sufficiency and Causal Sufficiency.” Law and Contemporary Problems 64: 83–105.Google Scholar
Geistfeld, Mark. (2001) “Scientific Uncertainty and Causation in Tort Law.” Vanderbilt Law Review 54: 1011–1037.Google Scholar
Gold, Steve. (1986) “Causation in Toxic Torts.” Yale Law Journal 96: 376–402.Google Scholar
Green, Michael D. (2005) “The Future of Proportional Responsibility.” In Madden, M. Stuart, ed., Exploring Tort Law, 352–400 (Cambridge University Press).Google Scholar
Green, Michael D., Freedman, D. Michal, and Gordis, Leon. (n.d.) “Reference Guide on Epidemiology.” In Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence (Federal Judicial Center). Available at http://www.fjc.gov/public/pdf.nsf/lookup/sciman06.pdf/$file/sciman06.pdf.Google Scholar
Greenland, Sander. (1999) “Relation of Probability of Causation to Relative Risk and Doubling Dose: A Methodologic Error That Has Become a Social Problem.” American Journal of Public Health 89: 1166–1169.Google Scholar
Greenland, Sander. (2004) “The Need for Critical Appraisal of Expert Witnesses in Epidemiology and Statistics.” Wake Forest Law Review 39: 291–310.Google Scholar
Greenland, Sander, and Robins, James. (1988) “Conceptual Problems in the Definition and Interpretation of Attributable Fractions.” American Journal of Epidemiology 128: 1185–1197.Google Scholar
Greenland, Sander, and Robins, James. (2000) “Epidemiology, Justice, and the Probability of Causation.” Jurimetrics 40: 321.Google Scholar
Haack, Susan. (forthcoming) “Risky Business: Statistical Proof of Individual Causation.” In Beltrán, Jordi Ferrer, ed., Casuación y atribución de responsibilidad (Madrid: Marcial Pons). English version available from the author at .Google Scholar
Hart, H.L.A., and Honoré, A.. (1985) Causation in the Law. 2nd ed. (Clarendon Press).Google Scholar
Hill, Austin Bradford. (1965) “The Environment and Disease: Association or Causation?” Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine 58: 259–300.Google Scholar
Hume, David. (2000) (1748) An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding: A Critical Edition. Edited by Beauchamp, Tom L. (Clarendon Press; Oxford University Press).Google Scholar
Kahneman, Daniel, and Tversky, Amos. (1973) “On the Psychology of Prediction.” Psychological Review 80: 237–257.Google Scholar
Last, John M. (1995) A Dictionary of Epidemiology. 3rd ed. (Oxford University Press).Google Scholar
Lewis, David. (1986) “Causal Explanation.” In Philosophical Papers, vol. 2, 214–241 (Oxford University Press).Google Scholar
Lewis, David. (1986) “A Subjectivist's Guide to Objective Chance.” In Philosophical Papers, vol. 2, 83–113. (Oxford University Press).Google Scholar
Lewis, David. (1979) “Counterfactual Dependence and Time's Arrow.” Noûs 13: 455–476.Google Scholar
Lewis, David. (1973) Counterfactuals (Harvard University Press).Google Scholar
Lewis, David. (1973) “Counterfactuals and Comparative Possibility.” Journal of Philosophical Logic 2: 418–446.Google Scholar
Lipton, Peter. (2004) Inference to the Best Explanation. 2d ed. (Routledge).Google Scholar
Lipton, Peter. (2000) “Tracking Track Records.” Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society 74 (suppl.): 179–205.Google Scholar
Malone, Wex. (1956) “Ruminations on Cause-In-Fact.” Stanford Law Review 9: 60–99.Google Scholar
Mellor, Hugh. (2005) Probability: A Philosophical Introduction (Routledge).Google Scholar
Miller, Chris. (2006) “Causation in Personal Injury: Legal or Epidemiological Common Sense?” Legal Studies 26: 544–569.Google Scholar
Miller, Chris. (2009) “Liability for Negligently Increased Risk: The Repercussions of Barker v. Corus U.K. (PLC).” Law, Probability and Risk 8: 39–54.Google Scholar
Nesson, Charles. (1986) “Agent Orange Meets the Blue Bus: Factfinding at the Frontier of Knowledge.” Boston University Law Review 66: 521–539.Google Scholar
Nesson, Charles. (1985) “The Evidence or the Event? On Judicial Proof and the Acceptability of Verdicts.” Harvard Law Review 98: 1357.Google Scholar
Nozick, Robert. (1981) Philosophical Explanations (Harvard University Press).Google Scholar
Owen, David. (1987) “Hume Versus Price on Miracles and Prior Probabilities: Testimony and the Bayesian Calculation.” Philosophical Quarterly 37: 187–202.Google Scholar
Parascandola, Mark. (1998) “What Is Wrong with the Probability of Causation?” Jurimetrics 39: 29–44.Google Scholar
Petitti, Diana. (1996) Review. “Reference Guide on Epidemiology.” Jurimetrics 36: 159–168.Google Scholar
Poole, Charles. (2010) “On the Origin of Risk Relativism.” Epidemiology 21: 3–9.Google Scholar
Robins, James, and Greenland, Sander. (1989) “The Probability of Causation under a Stochastic Model for Individual Risk.” Biometrics 45: 1125–1138.Google Scholar
Rockett, R.H. (1999) “Population and Health: An Introduction to Epidemiology.” Population Bulletin 54: 1–44.Google Scholar
Rothman, Kenneth J, Greenland, Sander, and Lash, Timothy L. (2008) Modern Epidemiology. 3rd ed. (Lippincott Williams & Wilkins).Google Scholar
See, Andrew. (2000) “Use of Human Epidemiology Studies in Proving Causation.” Defence Counsel Journal 67: 478–487.Google Scholar
Stapleton, Jane. (2010) “Factual Causation and Asbestos Cancers.” Law Quarterly Review 126: 351.Google Scholar
Steel, Sandy. (2010) “Uncertainty over Causal Uncertainty: Karen Sienkiewicz (Administratrix of the Estate of Enid Costello Deceased) v. Greif (U.K.) Ltd.” Modern Law Review 73: 631–655.Google Scholar
Thomson, Melissa Moore. (1992) “Causal Inference in Epidemiology: Implications for Toxic Tort Litigation.” North Carolina Law Review 71: 247–292.Google Scholar
Tillers, Peter. (2005) “If Wishes Were Horses: Discursive Comments on Attempts to Prevent Individuals from Being Unfairly Burdened by Their Reference Classes.” Law, Probability and Risk 4: 33–49.Google Scholar
Tribe, Laurence. (1971) “Trial by Mathematics: Precision and Ritual in the Legal Process.” Harvard Law Review 84: 1329.Google Scholar
Voyiakis, Emmanuel. (2009) “The Great Illusion: Tort Law and Exposure to Danger of Physical Harm.” Modern Law Review 72: 909–935.Google Scholar
Williamson, Timothy. (2000) Knowledge and Its Limits (Oxford University Press).Google Scholar
Wright, Richard. (1985) “Causation in Tort Law.” California Law Review 73: 1735–1828.Google Scholar
Wright, Richard. (1988) “Causation, Responsibility, Risk, Probability, Naked Statistics, and Proof: Pruning the Bramble Bush by Clarifying the Concepts.” Iowa Law Review 73: 1001–1077.Google Scholar
Wright, Richard. (2008) “Liability for Possible Wrongs: Causation, Statistical Probability, and the Burden of Proof.” Loyola of Los Angeles Law Review 41: 1295–1344.Google Scholar