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‘Jistis ak Reparasyon pou Tout Viktim Kolera MINUSTAH’:* The United Nations and the Right to Health in Haiti

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  30 July 2015

ROSA FREEDMAN  and
NICOLAS LEMAY-HEBERT
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Abstract

The Haiti cholera claims are focused upon the UN's violation of the rights of individuals affected by the cholera outbreak to access a remedy. The UN's absolute immunity from jurisdiction of national courts is counterbalanced by its duty to provide alternative dispute resolution mechanisms for private law claims. The UN has not only failed to provide those alternative dispute resolution mechanisms, but has repeatedly stated that no claims are receivable in these circumstances. Here we set out that even if the UN is able to shield itself from private law claims by using the cloak of absolute immunity, the UN might be held responsible for human rights violations arising from the cholera outbreak in Haiti. This article is concerned with the broader issue of whether the UN has violated and continues to violate individuals' right to health in Haiti.

Keywords

choleraHaitihealth, MINUSTAHUnited Nations
Type
INTERNATIONAL LAW AND PRACTICE
Information
Leiden Journal of International Law , Volume 28 , Issue 3 , September 2015 , pp. 507 - 527
Copyright
Copyright © Foundation of the Leiden Journal of International Law 2015 

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Footnotes

*

‘Justice and Reparation for all MINUSTAH's cholera victims’ (translation).

References

1 Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, ‘General Comment No 14’, 22nd Session (2000), UN Doc. E/C.12/2000/4.

2 GA Res. 22(1), Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations, UN Doc. A/RES/22(1) (13 Feb. 1946), s. 29.

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4 For example, ibid.

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18 See Katz, supra note 9, at 233; The UN's expert panel mentioned a 10-day free period for Nepalese soldiers to visit their families after medical examination was completed: A. Cravioto et al., Final Report of the Independent Panel of Experts on the Cholera Outbreak in Haiti (2011).

19 See Coughlin, supra note 12.

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27 The panel found that ‘the strains isolated in Haiti and Nepal during 2009 were a perfect match’. (See Cravioto, supra note 18, at 27).

28 ‘Clinton: UN Soldier Brought Cholera to Haiti’, Al Jazeera, 8 March 2012.

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35 U. Karunakara, ‘Haiti: Where Aid Failed’, The Guardian, 28 December 2010.

36 International Crisis Group, Towards a Post-MINUSTAH Haiti: Making an Effective Transition, Latin America/Caribbean Report No. 44 12, 2 August 2012; Adams, P., ‘Haiti Prepares for Cholera Vaccination But Concerns Remain’, (2012) 379 The Lancet 16CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

37 See, generally, Freedman, supra note 3.

38 ‘Petition for Relief’, 3 November 2011, para. 57, available at <www.ijdh.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/11/englishpetitionREDACTED.pdf> (accessed 4 May 2015).

39 UN Department of Public Information, ‘Haiti Cholera Victims’ Compensation Claims “Not Receivable” under Immunities and Privileges Convention, United Nations Tells Their Representatives', UN Doc. SG/SM/14828 (21 Feb. 2013).

40 Ibid.

41 Letter from Ban Ki-Moon, UN Secretary-General, to Maxine Waters, US Representative for California's 43rd congressional district, 5 July 2013, available at <http://www.ijdh.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/UNSG-Letter-to-Rep.-Maxine-Waters.pdf>) (accessed 4 May 2015).

42 G. Verdirame, The UN and Human Rights: Who Guards the Guardians? (2011), 55.

43 See H. G. Schermers and N. M. Blokker, International Institutional Law (2003), 1002; Reinisch, A., ‘The Immunity of International Organizations and the Jurisdiction of their Administrative Tribunals’, (2008) 7 Chinese Journal of International Law 285CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 290.

44 See, e.g., Beer and Regan v. Germany, App. No. 28934/95; 33 EHRR (2001) 54, para. 58; Waite and Kennedy v. Germany, App. No. 26083/94, 30 EHRR (1999) 261.

45 See, generally, Dannenbaum, T., ‘Translating the Standard of Effective Control into a System of Effective Accountability’, (2010) 51 Harvard International Law Journal 301Google Scholar, at 323–7.

46 Mégret, F. and Hoffman, F., ‘The UN as a Human Rights Violator? Some Reflections on the United Nations Changing Human Rights Responsibilities’, (2003) 25 (2)Human Rights Quarterly 314CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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48 Interpretation of the Agreement of 25 March 1951 Between the WHO and Egypt, Advisory Opinion, [1980] ICJ Rep. 73, para. 37.

49 Sheeran, S. and Bevilacqua, C., ‘The UN Security Council and International Human Rights Obligations: Towards a New Theory of Constraints and Derogations’, in Sheeran, S. and Nigel Rodley, S. (eds.), Routledge Handbook of International Human Rights Law (2013), 371Google Scholar.

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51 Ibid., at 324

52 Ibid.

53 See, generally, Rios, G. L. and Flaherty, E. P., ‘Legal Accountability of International Organization: Challenges and Reforms’, (2010) 16 ILSA Journal of International & Competition Law 433Google Scholar.

54 Ahmed Ali Yusuf and Al Barakaat International Foundation v. Council of the European Union and Commission of the European Communities (Case T-306/01) (Court of First Instance of the European Communities, 21 September 2005), para. 232–4.

55 See Mégret and Hoffman, supra note 46

56 Reinisch, A., ‘Securing the Accountability of International Organizations’, (2001) 7 Global Governance 131Google Scholar, at 137 and 143.

57 For further discussion see A. Clapham, Human Rights Obligations of Non-State Actors (2006); Reinisch, ibid., and M. Matheson, Council Unbound: the Growth of UN Decision-Making on Conflict and Post-Conflict Issues After the Cold War (2006).

58 Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia (South West Africa) notwithstanding SC Res 276 (1970), Advisory Opinion [1971] ICJ Rep. 12, at 16.

59 Ibid., at 57.

60 UN Human Rights Committee, General Comment No. 31, UN Doc. CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.13 (2004) para. 2.

61 Questions of interpretation and application of the Montreal Convention arising out of the Aerial incident at Lockerbie (provisional measures) (Libya v. UK), Order of 14 April 1992, [1992] ICJ Rep. 114, (Judge Jennings Dissenting Opinion) para. 110.

62 See, e.g. Resolution adopted by the International Law Association (International Law Association, Report of the Sixty-Sixth Conference (1994), 29); Alston, P., ‘The Universal Declaration at 35: Western and Passé or Alive and Universal’, (1982) 31 ICJ Rev. 60Google Scholar. For a recent critical discussion of the acceptance of the UDHR as customary international law, see Von Bernstorff, J., ‘The Changing Fortunes of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights: Genesis and Symbolic Dimensions of the Turn to Rights in International Law’, (2008) 19 (5)EJIL 903CrossRefGoogle Scholar, Section 3.

63 For a comprehensive discussion see Hannum, H., ‘The Status of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in National and International Law’, (1996) 25 (1)Georgia Journal of International and Comparative Law 287Google Scholar, at 317–51. See also Simma, B. and Alston, P. ‘The Sources of Human Rights Law: Custom, Jus Cogens and General Principles’, (1992) 12 Australian Yearbook of International Law 82Google Scholar, at 102.

64 UN CESCR, Concluding Observations of the Committee on Economical, Social and Cultural Rights: Israel, 31, 13th Sess., UN Doc. E/C.12/1/Add.90 (2003).

65 Schachter, O., ‘International Law in Theory and Practice’, in Steiner, H. J., Alston, P., and Goodman, R. (eds.) International Human Rights in Context: Law, Politics, Morals, (2000), 226Google Scholar, at 231.

66 Narula, S., ‘The Right to Food: Holding Global Actors Accountable Under International Law’, 44 Columbia Journal of Transnational Law 691Google Scholar, at 780–97.

67 Human Rights Committee, General Comment No. 24, UN Doc. CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.6 (1994), para. 10.

68 See Mégret and Hoffman, supra note 46.

69 Reparation for Injuries Suffered in the Service of the United Nations, Advisory Opinion, [1949] ICJ Rep. 174, at 178–9.

70 On Conditions of Admission of a State into membership of the United Nations, see Conditions of Admission of a State to Membership in the United Nations (Article 4 of Charter), Advisory Opinion, [1948] ICJ Rep. 57, at 7.

71 See Mégret and Hoffman, supra note 46.

72 See, e.g., Chopra, J., ‘The UN's Kingdom of East Timor’, (2000) 42 Survival 2CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 29.

73 d'Aspremont, J., ‘Abuse of the Legal Personality of International Organizations and the Responsibility of Member States’, (2007) 4 International Organizations Law Review 91CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 102.

74 See, e.g., K. Mujezinovic Larsen, The Human Rights Treaty Obligations of Peacekeepers (2012).

75 See Mégret and Hoffman, supra note 46, at 327–8; Paust, J. J., ‘The UN Is Bound By Human Rights: Understanding the Full Reach of Human Rights, Remedies and Nonimmunity’, (2010) 51 Harvard International Law Journal 1Google Scholar, at 9.

76 See Mégret and Hoffman, supra note 46, at 340.

77 GA-SC, ‘Human Rights Due Diligence Policy on United Nations Support to Non-United Nations Security Forces’, UN Doc. A/67/775–S/2013/110 (5 March 2013).

78 See Mégret and Hoffman, supra note 46.

79 United Nations Peacekeeping Operations, Principles and Guidelines 60 (Capstone Document)(2008).

80 ‘We are United Nations Peacekeeping Personnel’ is a brochure given to all new staff members (available at <www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/documents/un_in.pdf> (accessed 4 May 2015)) and is also included as an annex to the model ‘Memorandum of Understanding between the United Nations and Personnel Contributing States’. It specifies that the ‘Government shall ensure that all members of the Government's national contingent are required to comply with the United Nations standards of conduct’, Letter dated 22 February 2008 from the Chairman of the 2008 Working Group on Contingent-Owned Equipment to the Chairman of the Fifth Committee, (29 January 2009) (A/C.5/63/18) Ch. 9, Art. 7 bis, 165.

81 Unpublished letter of 3 February 2004 by the United Nations Legal Counsel to the Director of the Codification Division. Quoted in International Law Commission, Report of the ILC, GA Official Records, 56th session, Supplement No. 10, 111, UN Doc. A/59/10 (2004).

82 UN Secretary-General, Administrative and Budgetary Aspects of the Financing of the United Nations Peacekeeping Operations: Report of the Secretary-General, UN Doc. A/51/389 (20 September 1996), para. 6.

83 ‘UN Told Not to Join Congo Army in Operation’, New York Times, 9 December 2009, quoting letter dated 1 April 2009.

84 See, e.g., SC Res. 1270 of 22 October 1999 establishing UNAMIL; SC Res. 2112 of 30 July 2013; SC Res. 2098 of 28 March 2013; SC Res. 2113 of 30 July 2013.

85 OHCHR/DPKO/DPA/DFS, Policy on Human Rights in United Nations Peace Operations and Political Missions (1 September 2011). See also, UN Secretary-General, Report of the Secretary-General on the Work of the Organization, UN Doc. A/68/1 (8 Aug. 2012), para. 58.

86 GA-SC, supra note 77.

87 Ibid.

88 SC Res. 1244 (1999) establishing the ‘United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo’ (UNMIK) mandated UNMIK to perform basic civilian administrative functions, support the reconstruction of key infrastructure, maintain civil law and order, promote human rights, and assure the safe return of all refugees. Similarly, SC Res 1272 establishing ‘United Nations Transitional Authority in East Timor’ (UNTAET) gave UNTAET overall responsibility for the administration of East Timor including all legislative and executive authority, as well as the administration of justice.

89 For example, The United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC), the second United Nations Operation in Somalia (UNOSOM II), the United Nations Mission in Bosnia and Herzegovina (UNMIBH) in combination with a United Nations International Police Task Force (IPTF), and the ‘United Nations Transitional Administration for Eastern Slavonia’ (UNTAES).

90 UNTAET Regulation No. 1999/1 (27 November 1999)

91 S.C. Res. 1244, UN Doc. S/RES/1244 (11 June 1999), Article 11(j).

92 Human Rights Committee, General Comment No. 26, UN Doc. CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.8/Rev.1 (8 December 1997), para. 4.

93 Behrami and Behrami v. France, App. No. 71412/01 (2007) and Saramati v. France, Germany and Norway, App. No. 78166/01 (2007), paras. 144–52 in which the Court held that ‘UNMIK was a subsidiary organ of the UN created under Chapter VII and KFOR was exercising powers lawfully delegated under Chapter VII of the Charter by the UNSC. As such, their actions were directly attributable to the UN’.

94 Ibid., para. 144.

95 See, e.g., Bell, Caitlin, Reassessing Multiple Attribution: The International Law Commission and the Behrami and Saramati decision, 42 New York University Journal of International Law and Politics 501 (2010)Google Scholar.

96 Behrami and Behrami v. France, App. No. 71412/01 (2007) and Saramati v. France, Germany and Norway, App. No. 78166/01 (2007), para 152.

97 Kasumaj v. Greece, App. No. 6974/05 (2007).

98 Gajić v. Germany, App. No. 31446/02 (2007).

99 Berić and others v. Bosnia and Herzegovina, App. Nos. 36357/04; 36360/04; 38346/04; 41705/04; 45190/04; 45578/04; 45579/04; 45580/04; 91/05; 97/05; 100/05; 101/05; 1121/05; 1123/05; 1125/05; 1129/05; 1132/05; 1133/05; 1169/05; 1172/05; 1175/05; 1177/05; 1180/05; 1185/05; 20793/05; 25496/05 (2007).

100 Mothers of Srebrenica/Netherlands and United Nations, District Court of the Hague, July 10, 2008, De Rechtspraak BD6795 (Neth.). See also, Asser Institute, Centre for International and European Law, Cases for a full list of the cases, available at <www.asser.nl/default.aspx?site_id=36&level1=15248&level2=&level3=&textid=39956> (accessed 4 May 2015).

101 SC resolutions 1608 (2005), 1702 (2006), 1743 (2007), 1780 (2007), 1840 (2008), 1892 (2009), 1908 (19 January 2010), 1927 (4 June 2010) and 2070 (2012).

102 S. D. Krasner, Sovereignty: Organized Hypocrisy (1999).

103 See, e.g., Al-Skeini and Others v. the United Kingdom, App. No. 55721/07, 53 EHRR 589 (2011).

104 Aristide claimed to have been abducted by the United States, France and Canada. See N. Chomsky, P. Farmer, and A. Goodman, Getting Haiti Right This Time (2004).

105 S.C. Res. 1542, UN Doc. S/RES/1542 (30 April 2004).

106 For an overview of the evolution of MINUSTAH's mandate between 2004 and 2013, see Lemay-Hebert, N., ‘United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH)’ in Koops, J. A.et al. (eds.), Oxford Handbook of United Nations Peacekeeping Operations (2014)Google Scholar.

107 Fatton, R. Jr., ‘Haiti's Unending Crisis of Governance: Food, the Constitution and the Struggle for Power’ in Heine, J. and Thompson, A. S. (eds.), Fixing Haiti: MINUSTAH and Beyond (2011), 41Google Scholar.

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109 Bylaws of the Interim Haiti Recovery Commission, (20 June 2010), available at <http://personal.crocodoc.com/yZ0VAW> (accessed 4 May 2015).

110 See Fatton Jr., supra note 107.

111 M. Lundahl, The Political Economy of Disaster (2013), 256.

112 Porter, C., ‘Haiti's René Préval Says UN Tried to Remove Him’, Toronto Star, 13 May 2013Google Scholar.

113 S.C. Res. 1908 UN Doc. S/RES/1908 para 1 and 2 (19 January 2010).

114 S.C. Res. 1927 UN Doc. S/RES/1927 (4 June 2010).

115 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, G.A. Res. 217 (III) A, UN Doc. A/RES/217(III) (10 December 1948), Art. 25.

116 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 993 UNTS 3 (16 December 1996). Arts. 12 and 7(b).

117 For example, International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, UN Doc. A/6014 (1966), 660 UNTS 195 (21 December 1965), Art. 5(e)(iv); Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, 1249 UNTS 3 (18 Dec. 1979), Art. 12; Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1577 UNTS 3 (20 Nov. 1989), Article 24; Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, G.A. Res. 61/106 UN Doc. (24 Jan. 2007), Art. 25.

118 For example, Organization of American States, American Convention on Human Rights, OASTS No. 36, 1144 UNTS 123 (22 Nov. 1969), Art. 10; Organization of African Unity, The African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights, OAU Doc. CAB/LEG/67/3/Rev.5 (1981), reprinted in 21 ILM 58 (1982), Art. 16.

119 Two of the most famous cases are Soobramoney v. Minister of Health (Kwazulu-Natal), Constitutional Court of South Africa, Case CCT 32/97, 27 November 1997 and Minister of Health and Others v. Treatment Action Campaign, 2002 5 SA 721 (CC). For an exploration of a range of national and regional cases, see Hendriks, A., ‘The Right to Health in National and International Jurisprudence’, (1998) 5 European Journal of Health Law 389CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

120 UN CESCR, General Comment No. 14, UN Doc. E/C.12/2000/4 (11 August 2000), para. 9.

121 The tripartite framework traces its roots to Shue (Shue, H., ‘The Interdependence of Duties’, in Alston, Philip and Tomaševski, Katarina (eds.), The Right to Food (1984), 83Google Scholar), whose approach was modified by Eide, (Eide, A., ‘Realisation of Social and Economic Rights and the Minimum Threshold Approach’, (1989) 10 Human Rights Law Journal 35Google Scholar), who developed the terminology of obligations to respect, protect and fulfil. See, generally, A. Muller, The Relationship between Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and International Humanitarian Law: An Analysis of Health-Related Issues in Non-International Armed Conflicts (2013), Ch. 4.

122 See, e.g., S. Fredman, Human Rights Transformed: Positive Rights and Positive Duties (2009) Ch. 3.

123 Ibid., at 73–6.

124 See Paust, supra note 75, at 3.

125 Ibid., at 9.

126 UN Department of Public Information (New York), ‘Haiti Cholera Victims’ Compensation Claims “Not Receivable” under Immunities and Privileges Convention, United Nations Tells Their Representatives', UN Doc. SG/SM/14828 (21 February 2013).

127 Letter from Ban Ki-Moon, supra note 41.

128 UN Charter, Art. 105, para. 1.

129 G.A. Res. 22(1), supra note 2, s. 2.

130 Ibid, s. 29.

131 G.A., ‘Model Status-Of-Forces Agreement for Peace-keeping operations’, UN Doc. A/45/594 (1990), Art. 51.

132 See Freedman, supra note 3.