Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-fbnjt Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-10T08:42:58.010Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Excavations at the Lower Palaeolithic site at Elveden, Suffolk, UK

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 February 2014

Nick Ashton ,
Simon Lewis ,
Simon Parfitt ,
Ian Candy ,
David Keen ,
Rob Kemp ,
Kirsty Penkman ,
Gill Thomas ,
John Whittaker  and
Mark White
Nick Ashton
Affiliation:
Department of Prehistory & Europe, British Museum, 56 Orsman Road, London Nl 5QJ, UK
Simon Lewis
Affiliation:
Department of Geography, Queen Mary, University of London, Mile End Road, London E1 4NS, UK
Simon Parfitt
Affiliation:
Department of Palaeontology, The Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London SW7 5BD, UK Institute of Archaeology, University College London, 31-34 Gordon Square, London WC1H 0PY, UK
Ian Candy
Affiliation:
Department of Geography, Royal Holloway University of London, Egham, Surrey TW20 0EX, UK
David Keen
Affiliation:
Birmingham Archaeology, The University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK
Rob Kemp
Affiliation:
Department of Geography, Royal Holloway University of London, Egham, Surrey TW20 0EX, UK
Kirsty Penkman
Affiliation:
Department of Archaeology, University of York, Heslington, York, YO10 5DD, UK
Gill Thomas
Affiliation:
Formerly Department of Geography, University of Gloucestershire, Swindon Road, Cheltennham GL50 4AL, UK
John Whittaker
Affiliation:
Department of Palaeontology, The Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London SW7 5BD, UK
Mark White
Affiliation:
Department of Archaeology, University of Durham, South Road, Durham DH1 3LE, UK
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The Lower Palaeolithic site at Elveden, Suffolk, was the subject of new excavations from 1995–1999. Excavations around the edge and in the centre of the former clay-pit revealed sediments infilling a lake basin that had formed in Lowestoft till, overlying Chalk, the till being attributed to the Anglian glaciation (MIS 12). The lake sediments contain pollen that can be assigned to pollen zones HoI and HoIIa of the early Hoxnian (MIS 11). Overlying grey clays contain ostracods, molluscs, vertebrates, and carbonate concretions. Together they are indicative of a fluvial environment in a temperate climate. AAR ratios (amino acid racemisation) on the molluscs also suggest correlation with MIS 11. Further indications of a fluvial context are indicated by thin spreads of lag gravel along opposite sides of the clay-pit, marking the edges of a channel. The gravel forms the raw material for the human industries which consist of handaxes, flake tools, flakes, and cores. Further artefacts are found in the overlying black clay, which is interpreted as a palaeosol that formed with the silting-up of the channel. The basin was further infilled with colluvial ‘brickearths’, which also contain artefacts that are probably derived from the underlying gravel. Further evidence of soil formation was identified in the ‘brickearth’. Coversands with periglacial involutions overlie the ‘brickearth’ at the top of the sequence. These probably formed in the last cold stage, the Devensian (MIS 5d-2).

Résumé

Le site du paléolithique inférieur à Elveden, Suffolk, a fait l'objet de nouvelles fouilles entre 1995 et 1999. Des fouilles en bordure et au centre d'une ancienne carrière d'argile ont mis en évidence des sédiments de remplissage d'un bassin lacustre qui s'était formé en terrain erratique de Lowestoft, recouvrant de la craie, l'argile à blocaux a été attribuée à la période glaciaire Anglian (MIS12). Les sédiments lacustres contiennent du pollen qu'on peut rattacher aux zones polliniques HoI et HoIIa de l'Hoxnien primitif (MIS11). Les couches d'argile grise qui le recouvrent contiennent des ostracés, des mollusques, des vertébrés, et des concrétions de carbonate. L'ensemble indique un environnement fluvial sous un climat tempéré. Les rapportsde RAA (racémisation des acides aminés) sur les mollusques donnent également à penser qu'il existe une corrélation avec MIS11. Parmi les autres éléments qui indiquent un contexte fluvial, on trouve de minces étendues de graviers résiduels le long des côtés opposés de la carrière d'argile, marquant les bords d'un chenal. Le gravier constitue la matière première pour les industries humaines qui consistent en bifaces, outils sur éclats, éclats et noyaux. Des objets supplémentaires se trouvent dans la couche d'argile noire supérieure, qu'on a interprétée comme étant un paléosol qui se serait formé avec l'envasement du chenal. Le bassin a de plus été comblé par des ‘terres à briques’ de colluvionnement, qui contenaient également des objets, probablement dérivés du gravier sousjacent. Des témoignages supplémentaires de la formation des sols ont été identifiés dans la ‘terre à briques’. Des sables de couverture avec des involutions périglaciaires recouvrent la ‘terre à briques’ en haut de la séquence. Ceux-ci furent probablement formés au cours de la dernière période froide, le Devensien.

Zusammenfassung

1995–1999 wurden neue Ausgrabungen an der altpaläolithischen Fundstelle in Elveden, Suffolk unternommen. Die Ausgrabungen wurden am Rand und im Zentrum der ehemaligen Tongrube legten Sedimente eines Seebeckens offen, das sich im Lowestoft Geschiebe während der Anglian Vereisung über der Kreide gebildet hatte (MIS 12). Die Seesedimente enthalten Pollen, die den Pollenzonen HoI und HoIIa des frühen Hoxnian (MIS 11) zugeordnet werden können. Darüber liegende graue Tone enthalten Ostracods, Mollusken, Wirbeltiere und Karbonat Verwaschungen. Zusammen genommen sind sie ein Beispiel einer fluvialen Umwelt in einem gemäßigten Klima. Die AAR-Verhältnisse (Racemisierung von Aminosäuren) auf den Mollusken legen auch eine Korrelation mit MIS 11 nahe. Weitere Indikatoren für einen fluvialen Kontext sind durch die dünne Streuung von zurück gebliebenen Schotter entlang den beiden gegenüber liegenden Tongrubenrändern gegeben, die gleichzeitig die Ränder eines Kanals markieren. Der Schotter bildet das Rohmaterial für die Steingeräteindustrie, die aus Faustkeilen, Abschlaggeräten, Abschlägen und Kernen besteht. Weitere Artefakte wurden in dem darüber liegenden schwarzen Ton gefunden, der als fossiler Boden interpretiert wird und sich aus der Verschlammung des Kanals gebildet hat. Das Becken füllte sich weiter mit kolluvialen ‘Ziegeltonen’, die ebenfalls Artefakte enthielten, die wahrscheinlich aus dem unterliegenden Schotter stammen. Weitere Nachweise von Bodenbildung konnte im ‘Ziegelton’ identifiziert werden. Deckensand mit periglazialen Erhebungen liegt über dem ‘Ziegelton’ auf der oberste Stelle der Sequenz, die sich wahrscheinlich in der letzten Kaltphase, dem Devensian bildete.

Résumen

El yacimiento del Paleolítico Inferior de Elveden, Suffolk, ha sido objeto de nuevas excavaciones entre 1995–1999. Las excavaciones alrededor del perímetro y en el centro de la antigua mina de arcilla descubrieron sedimentos que rellenaban un fondo de lago, formado sobre morrena de Lowestoft, que a su vez yacía sobre la creta, mientras que la morrena es atribuida a la glaciación de Anglian (MIS 12). Los sedimentos del lago contienen polen que puede ser asignado a las zonas de polen HoI and HoIIa de comienzos del interglacial de Hoxnian (MIS 11). Las arcillas grises suprayacentes contienen ostracodos, moluscos, vertebrados, y concreciones carbonosas. Todos juntos indican un medioambiente de tipo fluvial en un clima templado. Las proporciones de AAR (racemización de aminoácidos) en los moluscos también sugieren una correlación con MIS 11. Indicaciones adicionales de un contexto fluvial vienen dadas por finas capas de grava a lo largo de los lados opuestos de la mina de arcilla, y que marcan los bordes de un canal. La grava constituye la materia prima para las industrias humanas, que consisten en hachas de mano, herramientas de lasca, lascas, y núcleos. Otros objetos han sido hallados en la arcilla negra suprayacente, interpretada como un paleosuelo formado al cegarse el canal. El fondo de lago fue rellenado después por sedimentos arcillosos de origen coluvial, que también contienen artefactos probablemente derivados de la grava inferior. Se identificaron otras evidencias de la formación de suelos en dichos terrenos arcillosos. Sedimentos eólicos con involuciones periglaciales suprayacen los sedimentos arcillosos en la parte superior de la secuencia. Probablemente éstos se formaron durante la última fase fría, el Devensian.

Type
Research Article
Information
Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society , Volume 71 , 2005 , pp. 1 - 61
Copyright
Copyright © The Prehistoric Society 2005

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Andrews, J.E., Riding, R. & Dennis, P.F. 1993. Stable isotopic composition of recent freshwater cyanobacterial carbonates from the British Isles: local and regional environmental controls. Sedimentology 40, 303–14CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ashton, N.M. 1998a. The taphonomy of the flint assemblages. In Ashton, et al. (eds) 1998, 183–204Google Scholar
Ashton, N.M. 1998b. The technology of the flint assemblages. In Ashton, et al. (eds) 1998, 205–35Google Scholar
Ashton, N.M. 2004. The role of refitting in the British Lower Palaeolithic: a time for reflection. In Walker, E.A., Wenban-Smith, F.F. & Healy, F. (eds), Lithics in Action, 57–64. Oxford: Oxbow Books, Lithic Studies Society Occasional Paper 8Google Scholar
Ashton, N.M., Cook, J., Lewis, S.G. & Rose, J. (eds). 1992. High Lodge: Excavations by G de G Sieveking 1962–68 and J Cook 1988. London: British Museum PressGoogle Scholar
Ashton, N.M. & Lewis, S.G. 1996. Excavations at Elveden 1995. Proceedings of the Suffolk Institute of Archaeology & History 38(4), 473–5Google Scholar
Ashton, N.M. & Lewis, S.G. 1997. Excavations at Elveden 1996. Proceedings of the Suffolk Institute of Archaeology & History 39(1), 92–5Google Scholar
Ashton, N.M. & Lewis, S.G. 1998. Excavations at Elveden 1997. Proceedings of the Suffolk Institute of Archaeology & History 39(2), 225–8Google Scholar
Ashton, N.M. & Lewis, S.G. 1999. Excavations at Elveden 1998. Proceedings of the Suffolk Institute of Archaeology & History 39(3), 371–3Google Scholar
Ashton, N.M. & Lewis, S.G. 2000. Excavations at Elveden 1999. Proceedings of the Suffolk Institute of Archaeology & History 39(4), 518–20Google Scholar
Ashton, N.M, Lewis, S.G. & Parfitt, S.A. 1998. Excavations at the Lower Palaeolithic Site of East Farm, Barnham, Suffolk 1989–94. London: British Museum Occasional Paper 125Google Scholar
Ashton, N.M. & McNabb, J. 1996. The flint industries from the Waechter excavations. In Conway, et al. (eds) 1996, 201–36Google Scholar
Ashton, N., McNabb, J., Irving, P., Lewis, S. & Parfitt, S. 1994. Contemporaneity of Clactonian and Acheulian flint industries at Barnham, Suffolk. Antiquity 68, 585–9CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Austin, L. 1994. The life and death of a Boxgrove biface. In Ashton, N.M. & David, A. (eds), Stories in Stone, 119–26. London: Occasional Paper of the Lithic Studies Society 4Google Scholar
Barber, K.E. 1976. History of vegetation. In Chapman, S.B. (ed.), Methods of Plant Ecology, 5–83. Oxford: BlackwellGoogle Scholar
Bateman, M.D. 1995. Thermoluminescence dating of the British coversand deposits. Quaternary Science Reviews 14, 791–8CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bateman, M.D. & Godby, S.P. 2004. Late-Holocene inland dune activity in the UK: a case study from Breckland, East Anglia. The Holocene 14, 589–98CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bridgland, D.R. & Lewis, S.G. 1991. Introduction to the Pleistocene geology and drainage history of the Lark valley. In Lewis, S.G.Whiteman, C.A. & Bridgland, D.R. (eds), Central East Anglia and the Fen Basin. Field Guide. London: Quaternary Research AssociationGoogle Scholar
Bridgland, D.R., Lewis, S.G. & Wymer, J.J. 1995. Middle Pleistocene stratigraphy and archaeology around Mildenhall and Icklingham, Suffolk: a report on a Geologists' Association field meeting, 27th June, 1992. Proceedings of the Geologists' Association 106, 57–69Google Scholar
Candy, I. 2002. Formation of a rhizogenic calcrete during a glacial stage (Oxygen Isotope Stage 12): its palaeoenvironmental and stratigraphic significance. Proceedings of the Geologists' Association 113, 259–70Google Scholar
Cerling, T.E., Quade, J., Wang, Y. & Bowman, J.R., 1989. Carbon isotopes in soils and palaeosols as palaeoecologic indicators. Nature 341, 138–9CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chase, P.Armand, D., Debènath, A., Dibble, H. & Jelinek, A. 1994. Taphonomy and multiple hypothesis testing: an object lesson from the Mousterian. Journal of Field Archaeology 21, 289–305Google Scholar
Chorley, R.J., Stoddart, D.R. & Hagget, P. 1966. Regional and local components in the areal distribution of surface sand facies in Breckland, eastern England. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 36, 209–20Google Scholar
Clarke, M.L., Rendell, H.M., Hoare, P.G., Godby, S.P. & Stevenson, C.R. 2001. The timing of coversand deposition in northwest Norfolk, UK: a cautionary tale. Quaternary Science Reviews 20, 705–14Google Scholar
Conway, B., McNabb, J. & Ashton, N.M. (eds). 1996. Excavations at Swanscombe 1968–72. London: British Museum Occasional Paper 94Google Scholar
Corbett, W.M. 1973. Breckland Forest Soils. Soil Survey Special Survey 7. London: HMSOGoogle Scholar
Dibble, H. 1995. Introduction to site formation. In Dibble, H. & Lenoir, M. (eds), The Middle Palaeolithic Site of Combe-Capelle Bas (France). 175–8. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania MuseumGoogle Scholar
Ellis, A.E. 1978. British Freshwater Bivalve Mollusca. London: Linnean Society of London Synopses of the British Fauna new series 11Google Scholar
Gilbertson, D.D. & Hawkins, A.B. 1978. The Pleistocene succession at Kenn, Somerset. Bulletin of the Geological Survey of Great Britain 66, 1–44Google Scholar
Green, C.P., Coope, G.R., Jones, R.L., Keen, D.H., Bowen, D.Q., Currant, A.P., Holyoak, D.T., Ivanovich, M., Robinson, J.E., Rogerson, R.J. & Young, R.C. 1996. Pleistocene deposits at Stoke Goldington in the valley of the Great Ouse, UK. Journal of Quaternary Science 11, 59–873.0.CO;2-7>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Griffiths, H.I. 1995. European Quaternary freshwater Ostracoda: a biostratigraphic and palaeobiogeographic primer. Scopolia 34, 1–168Google Scholar
Hill, R.L. 1965. Hydrolysis of proteins. Advances in Protein Chemistry 20, 37–107CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Horton, A.Keen, D.H., Field, M.H., Robinson, J.E., Coope, G.R., Currant, A.P., Graham, D.K., Green, C.P. & Phillips, L.M. 1992. The Hoxnian Interglacial deposits at Woodston, Peterborough. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B338, 131–64Google Scholar
Irving, I.G. & Parfitt, S.G. 1998. The ichthyofauna from East Farm, Barnham, and its ecological implications. In Ashton, et al. (eds) 1998, 97–100Google Scholar
Isaac, G. Ll. 1967. Towards the interpretation of occupation debris: some experiments and observations. Kroeber Anthropological Society Papers 5(37), 31–57Google Scholar
Kaufman, D.S. & Manley, W.F. 1998. A new procedure for determining DL amino acid ratios in fossils using reverse phase liquid chromatography. Quaternary Science Reviews 17, 987–1000CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keen, D.H. 1987. Non-marine molluscan faunas of periglacial deposits in Britain. In Boardman, J. (ed.), Periglacial Processes and Landforms in Britain and Ireland, 257–63. Cambridge: University PressGoogle Scholar
Keen, D.H. 2001. Towards a late Middle Pleistocene non-marine molluscan biostratigraphy for the British Isles. Quaternary Science Reviews 20, 1657–65CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keen, D.H., Coope, G.R., Jones, R.L., Field, M.H., Griffiths, H.I., Lewis, S.G. & Bowen, D.Q. 1997. Middle Pleistocene deposits at Frog Hall Pit, Stretton-on-Dunsmore, Warwickshire, English Midlands, and their implication for the age of the type Wolstonian. Journal of Quaternary Science 12, 183–2083.0.CO;2-Q>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kemp, R.A.1998. Micromorphology of the Area I sequence at East Farm, Barnham. In Ashton, et al. (eds) 1998, 83–9Google Scholar
Kerney, M.P. 1999. Atlas of the Land and Freshwater Snails of Britain and Ireland. Colchester: HarleyGoogle Scholar
Kerney, M.P. & Cameron, R.A.D. 1979. A Field Guide to the Land Snails of Britain and North-west Europe. London: CollinsGoogle Scholar
Klappa, C.F. 1980. Rhizoliths in terrestrial carbonates: classification, recognition, genesis and significance. Sedimentology 27, 613–29CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, J.A. & Kemp, R.A. 1992. Thin Sections of Unconsolidated Sediments and Soils: a recipe. London: Centre for Environmental Analysis & Management Technical Monograph 2Google Scholar
Lewis, S.G. 1992. High Lodge – stratigraphy and depositional environments. In Ashton, et al. (eds) 1992, 51–85Google Scholar
Lewis, S.G. 1998. Quaternary geology of the East Farm brick pit, Barnham and surrounding area. In Ashton, et al. (eds) 1998, 23–78Google Scholar
Lewis, S.G. 1999. Eastern England. In Bowen, D.Q. (ed.). A Revised Correlation of Quaternary Deposits in the British Isles. 10–27. London: Geological Society Special Report 23Google Scholar
McNabb, J. 1998. The history of investigations at East Farm Pit, Barnham. In Ashton, et al. (eds) 1998, 5–12Google Scholar
Newcomer, M.H. 1971. Some quantitative experiments in handaxe manufacture. World Archaeology 3, 85–94Google Scholar
Paterson, T.T. 1937. Studies on the Palaeolithic succession in England No. 1, the Barnham sequence. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 3(1), 87–135CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Paterson, T.T. 1940–1941. On a world correlation of the Pleistocene. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 60(2), 373–425Google Scholar
Paterson, T.T. 1942. Lower Palaeolithic Man in the Cambridge District. Unpublished PhD thesis, Cambridge UniversityGoogle Scholar
Paterson, T.T. & Fagg, B.E.B. 1940. Studies on the Palaeolithic succession in England No. II. The Upper Brecklandian Acheul (Elveden). Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 6, 1–29CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Penck, A. & Brückner, E. 1909. Die Alpen im Eiszeitalter. LeipzigGoogle Scholar
Penkman, K.E.H. 2005. Amino Acid Geochronology: a closed system approach to test and refine the UK model. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of NewcastleGoogle Scholar
Perrin, R.M.S., Rose, J. & Davies, H. 1979. The distribution, variation and origins of pre-Devensian tills in eastern England. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B287, 535–70Google Scholar
Preece, R.C. 1999 Mollusca from the Last Interglacial fluvial deposits of the River Thames at Trafalgar Square, London. Journal of Quaternary Science 14(1), 77–89Google Scholar
Preece, R.C. & Penkman, K.E.H. in press. New faunal analyses and amino acid dating of the Lower Palaeolithic site at East Farm, Barnham, Suffolk. Proceedings of the Geologists' Association 116Google Scholar
Rick, J.W. 1976. Downslope movement and archaeological intrasite spatial analysis. American Antiquity 41(2), 133–44Google Scholar
Rose, J. 1992. High Lodge – regional context and geolocial background. In Ashton, et al. (eds) 1992, 13–24Google Scholar
Schick, K.D. 1986. Stone Age Sites in the Making: experiments in the formation and transformation of archaeological occurrences. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports S314Google Scholar
Schiffer, M.B. 1983. Toward the identification of formation processes. American Antiquity 48(4), 675–706CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shackley, M.L. 1974. Stream abrasion of flint implements. Nature 248, 501–2Google Scholar
Shotton, F.W., Keen, D.H., Coope, G.R., Currant, A.P., Gibbard, P.L., Aalto, M., Peglar, S.M. & Robinson, J.E. 1993. The Pleistocene deposits at Waverley Wood Pit, Warwickshire, England. Journal of Quaternary Science 8, 293–325Google Scholar
Singer, R., Gladfelter, B.G., & Wymer, J.J. 1993. The Lower Paleolithic Site at Hoxne, England. Chicago: University PressGoogle Scholar
Smith, R.A. 1931. The Sturge Collection. An Illustrated Selection of Flints from Britain Bequeathed in 1919 by William Allen Sturge, M.V.O., M.D., F.R.C.P. London: British MuseumGoogle Scholar
Sparks, B.W. 1961. The ecological interpretation of Quaternary non-marine Mollusca. Proceedings of the Linnean Society of London 172, 71–80Google Scholar
Sparks, B.W. 1980. Land and freshwater Mollusca of the West Runton Freshwater Bed. In West, R.G., The preglacial Pleistocene of the Norfolk and Suffolk Coasts, 148–9. Cambridge: University PressGoogle Scholar
Strong, G.E., Giles, J.R.A. & Wright, V.P. 1992. A Holocene calcrete from North Yorkshire, England: implications for interpreting palaeoclimates using calcretes. Sedimentology 39, 333–48CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sylvester-Bradley, P.C. 1973. On Ilyocypris quinculminata Sylvester-Bradley sp. nov. A Stereo-Atlas of Ostracod Shells, 1, 85–8Google Scholar
Turner, C. 1970. Middle Pleistocene deposits at Marks Tey, Essex. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B257, 373–437Google Scholar
Turner, C. 1973. Elveden, TL 809804, Warren Wood brick-pit. In Rose, J. and Turner, C. (eds), Clacton. Field Guide, (unpaginated). Cambridge: Quaternary Research AssociationGoogle Scholar
Wenban-Smith, F.F. & Ashton, N.M. 1998. Raw material and lithic technology. In Ashton, et al. (eds) 1998, 237–44Google Scholar
Wenban-Smith, F.F., Gamble, C. & ApSimon, A. 2000. The Lower Palaeolithic site at Red Barns, Portchester, Hampshire: bifacial technology, raw material quality and the organisation of archaic behaviour. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 66, 209–55Google Scholar
West, R.G. 1956. The Quaternary deposits at Hoxne, Suffolk. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B239, 265–356Google Scholar
West, R.G. & Donner, J.J. 1956. The glaciations of East Anglia and the East Midlands: a differentiation based on stone orientation measurements of the tills. Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London 112, 69–71CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wheeler, A. 1977. The origin and distribution of the freshwater fishes of the British Isles. Journal of Biogeography 4, 1–24CrossRefGoogle Scholar
White, M.J. 1998a. On the significance of Acheulean biface variability in southern Britain. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 64, 15–44CrossRefGoogle Scholar
White, M.J. 1998b. Twisted ovates in the British Lowerc Palaeolithic. In Ashton, N.M.Healy, F. & Pettitt, P. (eds), Stone Age Archaeology: essays in honour of John Wymer, 98–104. Oxford: OxbowGoogle Scholar
White, M.J. 2000. The Clactonian question: on the interpretation of core and flake assemblages in the British Lower Palaeolithic. Journal of World Prehistory 14, 1–63Google Scholar
Wright, V.P. & Tucker, M.E., 1991. Calcrete: an introduction. In Wright, V.P. & Tucker, M.E. (eds), Calcrete. Oxford: International Association of Sedimentologists Special Publication 2CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wymer, J.J. 1964. Excavations at Barnfield Pit, 1955–1960. In Ovey, C.D. (ed.), The Swanscombe Skull. A Survey of Research on a Pleistocene Site, 19–61. London: Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and IrelandGoogle Scholar