The implications of pit-deposits containing aurochs/Bos primigenius skulls dating to the Bronze Age, found in two recent excavations in Bedfordshire are outlined. Involving a review of related findings in south-eastern England, these serve as a platform to consider the dynamics of aurochs extinction, which is held to have occurred in Britain by the middle–later centuries of the 2nd millennium bc. It should be stressed that, although consulting many ‘expert’ colleagues, this paper is not written from a faunal remains-specialist perspective. It is essentially discursive and primarily intended to highlight a significant site-recovery trend. It reflects, moreover, on issues of broad social relevance. Holocene human-induced extinctions have both an inherent curiosity and poignancy. Indeed now, faced with currently threatened mass-species loss, they can even involve – beyond regret – a sense of cumulative guilt.

The Wickliffe Mounds site is a Mississippian town and mound centre dated to c. AD 1100–1350. Excavations at Wickliffe Mounds from 1984–1996 have re-evaluated a 1932–1939 semi-professional project and have provided additional data over much of the remaining area of the site. The site was established c. AD 1100 as a small village clustered tightly around a central plaza. From AD 1175 to c. 1350 the Wickliffe people built two platform mounds next to the plaza plus several smaller mounds around the site, and expanded the village area to the edges of the bluff. The village was abandoned c. AD 1350, but a cemetery appears to be intrusive, indicating the presence of a population in the area with ties to the site. A scenario of a single chiefly cycle, followed by dispersal of the population with continued use of the site as an ‘empty’ ceremonial centre, best fits current data.

The recent discovery at Knossos of a bronze bell helmet (pl. 1; also de Jong and Hood, 1952, and Hood, 1952) of Late Minoan 11, usually dated 1450–1400 B.C., focuses attention on the series of similar helmets that have long been known from Europe. The helmet from Knossos is topped with a knob within which is a tube that penetrates the inside of the helmet. This must have been for a plume. The knob is held in place by seven small rivets. There are also a pair of cheek pieces of a more elaborately curved profile than the plainer ones from Ialysos of Late Helladic III (Lorimer, 1950, 211, pl. XIII), Weissig in Saxony of Bronze Age III b (Kleemann, 1941–2) or the pair belonging to the Pass Lueg helmet from Austria of Hallstatt A or B (Merhart, 1941, 30, fig. 8, 3). Around the rim of the Knossos helmet and around the cheek pieces are rows of small evenly-spaced holes. Inspection of the Ialysos cheek piece shows that it had a similar row of holes, though the examples from Weissig and Pass Lueg did not. Evidently these rows of holes were to attach a padded lining as well as to fasten the cheek pieces to the helmet and to the chin strap. No neck guard was found, though such were in use in the Aegean on boar tusk and other kinds of helmets of this shape (Lorimer, 1950, figs. 16, 22). I am greatly obliged to Mr Sinclair Hood of the British School in Athens for so generously giving me photographs and full information on this important find.

Fabric categories.

Fabric 1 : flint tendered (28%)

Inclusions; medium size calcined flint temper of medium abundance (approximately 1000 grains per 1 gm of sherd) with a negligible backing of medium grade sand quartz natural to the clay.

Example of analysed sherd: flint temper (99%0; G - 0.9%, VC - 8#5%, C - 26.8%, M - 39.4%, F - 24.4% quartz sand (1%); M - 11 grains per gram of sherd

Firing and surface finish; surfaces and core are generally reduced but patches of buff, brown and orange exist. Exterior and some internal surfaces show signs of horizontal burnishing.

Sherd wall thickness; 4 - 8 mm

Technology; handmade with evidence of coil construction and subsequent drawing up (Rye 1981, 67-73).

This paper is inspired by and based upon a field survey of the Carrowmore megalithic cemetery carried out by the writer and Mr Desmond Smith, then Hon. Secretary of the Sligo Field Club, in 1972–73 and revised in 1977 following the clearance of scrub from a number of sites which had hitherto been incapable of proper examination. So far as is known, this is the first attempt at a definitive, if admittedly superficial, survey of this unique assemblage of tombs and other sites since that conducted by Col. W. G. Wood-Martin almost a century ago and recorded in The Rude Stone Monuments of Ireland (1888). The only other definitive survey was that made in 1837 by George Petrie, archaeologist to the Ordnance Survey, and recorded in the Ordnance Survey Letters for County Sligo. In addition, Petrie prepared a map of the area of the cemetery (unfortunately not reproduced in the Ordnance Survey letters) in which he marked and numbered all sites to his knowledge then extant. This map was revised and used by Wood-Martin and it is on this later version that the identification of sites in the present survey is based.

A fairly close acquaintance with Carrowmore over the past twenty years or so has encouraged the conviction that the problems posed are of greater variety and complexity than have up to now been acknowledged.

Recent research has established that south Scandinavia during the Nordic Bronze Age was entirely dependent on imported metal. It was obviously in contact with other parts of Europe and must have participated in a system of long-distance exchange. It is not clear how it would have operated, but it helps to explain the importance of watercraft and drawings of distinctive artefacts in the rock art on the Baltic and Atlantic coasts. A different group of images can be associated with inland areas where the art has a more restricted lexicon. Can the borderland between these traditions shed any light on the relationship between the seashore and the interior, and might this help to identify places where artefacts changed hands? This paper presents the results of fieldwork between Lakes Vänern and Vättern in Västra Götaland county, southern Sweden. It considers the character of inland rock art and whether some locations with more complex panels were used as ‘aggregation sites’.

This tumulus was first noticed by Mr. Sainty and myself in April, 1931, whilst on an expedition in search of implements of Cissbury type, of which we had found a considerable number in this locality. In appearance it did not seem to differ very much from the numerous mounds left bv warreners digging for rabbits, and, in fact, we had examined several such mounds showing almost the same elevation above the surrounding heath; but as this contained no rabbit workings and such parts as were not covered by gorse showed a thick covering of turf, it appeared interesting, and we marked it down for further examination at the next possible opportunity.

We were not able to visit the spot again till August 27th, when after a short time spent in searching for implements in the neighbouring field, we commenced digging, removing turf about five inches thick and opening a narrow trench. It was not long before we came across flakes, and threw out some 15 or 20, all showing signs of human workmanship, some with facetted bulbs of percussion, and finally a good chopper of Cissbury type.

As similar flakes had been found by us in the side of an old stone pit about 120 yards distant, we were very doubtful if it could be a tumulus after all, but decided to settle the matter by excavating till undisturbed earth was reached. At a depth of about three feet a tiny fragment of charcoal was turned up, so we at once enlarged the trench to allow for more careful working.

The remarkable specimen which forms the subject of this communication was presented to me by Mr. Reid Moir, who had extracted it with his own hands from the base of the Red Crag exposed in Messrs. Bolton & Laughlin's brick field, near Ipswich.

It is a fragment of a nodule of chalk flint, irregularly rhombic in outline, with nearly flat base and a rounded upper surface which slopes away on each side from a medium line (the shorter diameter) joining the two obtuse angles of the rhomb.

The upper rounded side formed part of the original surface of the nodule and retains the whitish weathered crust, 8 mm. or more in thickness, which was formed while the nodule lay embedded in the chalk. The exterior of this crust has since been traversed by solutions which have deposited in its pores some silica and ferric hydrate, thus forming a brown superficial layer which is now too hard to be scratched with a knife.

The remains submitted to me by Mr. R. H. Chandler represent three species, Elephas antiquus, Rhinoceros, sp., and a deer which for the moment may be determined as Cervus browni. In general character these fossils are quite like those obtained many years ago from the “Shell Pit” in the High Terrace Drift of the Thames at Ingress Vale, near Greenhithe. A full account of the older collection will, I hope, be published before long. The present small collection forms a welcome addition to the relatively scanty material from this horizon, and by the kindness of Mr. A. C. Davis it will be presented to the British Museum.

An International Institute of Anthropology was founded in 1920, with central offices in Paris. Each country has been invited to form a National Office which would act with and be in relation with this Central Office. A Congress of the members of this International Institute was held in Liège (Belgium) in 1921 (July 25-August 1st). Being in France during July the writer decided to run over to Liege and very glad he was that he did so. Not only were there a number of new facts (not to speak of theories) brought forward, but one met again such savants as MM. Cartailhac, Capitan, Breuil, Begouen, Lalanne, Franchet, Hamal-Nandrin, Pittard, etc., etc. (to only mention a few), and discussions over lunch with such folk are worth weeks of work. Before describing the Congress and some of the papers, the writer would like to bear tribute to the extraordinary kindness and efficiency of the Belgian hosts, who were Professors at the Liege University. Everywhere we were received with the utmost kindness and no trouble was too great, if something could be arranged for us. It is impossible to mention everybody, but if ever the Congress comes to England, one can only hope that we may equal (we could not excel) such hosts (to mention only a few with whom the writer had most contact), as MM. Fraipont, Hamal-Nandrin, Servais, Max Lohest, Stockis, etc., etc. Eighteen countries were represented. The congress was divided into two parts:—(1) Work; (2) Excursions. For (1) Anthropology was divided into 8 sections, (a) What we should call Human Palæontology; (b) Prehistory; (c) Ethnography; (d) Criminology; (e) Eugenics; (f) Religions, later Archæology and Folk-lore; (g) Linguistic studies; (h) Sociology, etc. Of these the Prehistoric Section was one of the most important, there being nearly 50 people, on an average, at the Meetings.

My first paper on flint implements in Cornwall dealt with those of Booby Bay and Dinas Head, adjoining Trevose Head, near the famous cemetery at Harlyn Bay. Mention was made of the fact that prisms and cones of regular shape, and long thin flakes, occur there, and also at the inland site on the shore of Dozmare Pool. In both cases, pygmy flints are found with the flakes and cores. On the coast sites, however, scrapers are rare (at Booby Bay they are absent); whilst at Dozmare Pool they are numerous. They are both short and long at this site. The latter are sometimes formed on quite narrow blades. The facets are almost always grey. On the coast the chipped flints are sometimes grey, but are more often white, owing to exposure by the weathering away of the superincumbent soil.

Both on the coast sites and at Dozmare Pool the flint tools are made from shore pebbles. Local ideas sometimes attribute the presence of these pebbles on the shore to the casting out of ballast from coasting ships. It is evident that they are in reality remains from the Tertiary beds of West Cornwall, which have now almost vanished, though a section may still be seen near S. Erth.

The writer of this article was lucky enough to find last August a large ovate implement of the Early Palæolithic period in Yorkshire, after many years of careful searching; he is indebted to Mr. E. T. Lingwood for the drawings of the same, for which help he offers his grateful thanks.

The site of this find is Upper Nidderdale, just within the boundary of the West Riding. At the far end of the dale, and some six and a half miles from its source, the river Nidd, which up to this point has run due East, makes a bend, practically a. right angle, to the South.

Some three hundred yards below this point an interesting geological phenomenon occurs in the shape of a triangular fault with its apex to the South, which has thrust up the Carboniferous Limestone on both sides of the valley.

Through this the river, with the help of the glaciers, has cut its way.

This strip of limestone is about half a mile long and below this the river continues its course for some distance through the Millstone Grit series, Nidderdale being, from a geological point of view, a Millstone Grit dale.

The present position of the science of prehistoric research in England cannot be said to be satisfactory. New and important discoveries are continually being made, and for some years past there has been a marked awakening of interest in this highly important subject. But this rejuvenescence has been accompanied by endless dissensions and disputations amongst archaeologists, and though by the fire of controversy truth is revealed, yet a dispassionate observer would marvel at the utter divergence of the views expressed, and conclude that the foundations upon which prehistorians wish to build are in a very shaky and unsound condition. And in the opinion of the author the dispassionate observer would be right. It would be regarded by any ordinary person as unthinkable that an engineer, for instance, should be unfamiliar with the exact nature of the materials with which he works, and the manner in which these materials fracture. One can imagine the great divergence of opinion which would be shown at meetings of engineering societies were such ignorance of fundamental facts present. And what is true of engineering is true equally of all real science. Now what is the position regarding flint, which is the raw material of most prehistorical research ?

I must apologise for again addressing you on the subject of Grime's Graves. My work, however, has kept me in a practically flintless country, and I have been unable to accumulate any fresh material except of Roman date. Although the villa we have been excavating in our spare time is very interesting it is not an appropriate subject for the Prehistoric Society.

Owing to the kindness of the Trustees of the Weeting Estate, Mrs. T. S. Hall and Mr. C. Cockburn, we were able to do some fresh work at Grime's Graves in 1916, and on behalf of those who took part in it I wish to express our cordial appreciation for the permission.

I was associated in the work of last year, 1916, with Mr. A. Leslie Armstrong, F.S.A. (Scot.), and Mr. and Mrs. E. T. Lingwood, and the pieces exhibited are some of the best and most interesting things which came to light during this work.

The estuarine peaty shale still to be seen in the cliff section below the Martello tower at Clacton has a thickness of 10 or 12 feet, and seems to pass gradually into a dark clay which we find as the top layer of the shore deposit. On the shore below the Martello, and east of the stone groyne, the following layers were observed:—

1. Dark, stiff clay, without shells. To be seen only on the upper part of the shore, near the sea-wall. Further down, it. has been denuded. Thickness, c. 9 in. from shore sand.

2. A shelly layer, containing much Unıo littoralis: more sandy than the last. c. 3 in.

3. A dark layer with occasional shells. Lower limit variable. c. 4 in.

4. Blue loam: one of the most characteristic features of the deposit. Shells of Unio occur. Helix was also found. There is also in some parts much wood. Partly embedded in this layer most of the bones are found on the shore surface. Eastwards the layer grows less homogeneous and comes to rest directly on the London Clay. I am not sure what is the full thickness of this layer, but, where it is covered by others, I have dug 18 in. into it without reaching anything else. Accumulation of water and return of the tide prevented deeper trenching, but I think if we gave 2 feet as the total thickness we should not be far wrong.

5. A very thin layer, made up almost wholly of fragments of Unio.

6. Sand, shells, and broken flints. Thickness varies; 3 in. and 5 in. were measured in two trenches.

7. Stony layer. Flint pebbles, broken flints, some sand, some shells. Astragalus of deer, horn core (probably of deer), tibia of deer were found in trenching this layer.

It is perhaps rather late in the day to be describing an experience of twenty-nine years ago, but unless it is done now, possibly a unique relic of the past, though still in existence, may remain unknown to a large majority of antiquaries.

It was on the 15th of April, 1905, that accompanied by Miss Outram, I started from North Berwick, in East Lothian, Scotland, on a voyage of discovery along the picturesque coast. Our goal was a cave opened out rather more than a hundred years ago by Mr. George Sligo, on his property of Seacliff, in the county of Haddington. According to tradition there was incontestable evidence that on this spot human sacrifices had been offered in the remote past. Fired by these dramatic accounts, we decided to seek out the cave for ourselves, and if possible, to test the accuracy of these statements.

A short drive took us to Seacliff House, marked by a cross on fig. 1. In the foreground stands Tantallon Castle, the ruined stronghold of the Douglases, and in the cliff beyond the promontory on which the Castle stands is Seacliff Cave below the arrow (fig. 1).

As we turned the corner in the winding descent from the cliff, it was an arresting scene which held us for amoment spell-bound. At the mouth of a cave, hollowed out in the red sandstone cliff, stood a large pear-shaped stone, with every appearance of an altar, raised upon an artificial mound (fig. 3). Its surface, which was approximately flat, was covered with a small blood-red plant, which had crept over it, and hanging down, seemed to drip over the edge, conjuring up with startling effect, the scene of some gruesome Pagan sacrifice. It was with feelings almost akin to awe that we entered the cave, where other remains were equally suggestive both of occupation and worship.

The Blacks nowadays are tame, but when Fortescue came up in about 1856 exploring, he had considerable bother with them, and even now in the Kimberley district, some 500 miles away, they are still in the Stone Age, and cannot be trusted. To-day at Millstream, stone implements are only used for circumcision and cutting out spears. The spears are made of hard wood and barbed both ways so that it is impossible to pull or push them out, and the blacks cut them out with a hot flake. The fire in which the flake is heated must not be lighted with a match but with a fire stick. By using a stone and not a knife they maintain that they do not get blood poisoning, and that the wound heals sooner. I showed one of my large black flakes to a native woman, and she said, “He good fella stone, he cut'em out spear, he borrow Ian.” Whether she meant a flake was called “borrow Ian,” or the kind of stone upon which the flake was made was “borrow Ian” I could not make out, but on showing her another, a yellow coloured scraper, she said, “He bad fella, he poison.”