Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-q99xh Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T07:52:53.910Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The association between childhood adversities and subsequent first onset of psychotic experiences: a cross-national analysis of 23 998 respondents from 17 countries

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  09 January 2017

J. J. McGrath ,
K. A. McLaughlin ,
S. Saha ,
S. Aguilar-Gaxiola ,
A. Al-Hamzawi ,
J. Alonso ,
R. Bruffaerts ,
G. de Girolamo ,
P. de Jonge  and
O. Esan
...Show all authors
J. J. McGrath*
Affiliation:
Queensland Centre for Mental Health Research, and Queensland Brain Institute, University of Queensland, Australia
K. A. McLaughlin
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
S. Saha
Affiliation:
Queensland Centre for Mental Health Research, and Queensland Brain Institute, University of Queensland, Australia
S. Aguilar-Gaxiola
Affiliation:
Center for Reducing Health Disparities, UC Davis Health System, Sacramento, California, USA
A. Al-Hamzawi
Affiliation:
College of Medicine, Al-Qadisiya University, Diwaniya governorate, Iraq
J. Alonso
Affiliation:
Health Services Research Unit, IMIM-Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain Pompeu Fabra University (UPF), Barcelona, Spain CIBER en Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Barcelona, Spain
R. Bruffaerts
Affiliation:
Universitair Psychiatrisch Centrum – Katholieke Universiteit Leuven (UPC-KUL), Campus Gasthuisberg, Leuven, Belgium
G. de Girolamo
Affiliation:
IRCCS St John of God Clinical Research Centre, IRCCS Centro S. Giovanni di Dio Fatebenefratelli, Brescia, Italy
P. de Jonge
Affiliation:
Department of Developmental Psychology, Research Program Interdisciplinary Center Psychopathology and Emotion Regulation, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
O. Esan
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, University of Ibadan, Nigeria
S. Florescu
Affiliation:
National School of Public Health, Management and Professional Development, Bucharest, Romania
O. Gureje
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, University College Hospital, Ibadan, Nigeria
J. M. Haro
Affiliation:
Parc Sanitari Sant Joan de Déu, CIBERSAM, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
C. Hu
Affiliation:
Shenzhen Institute of Mental Health & Shenzhen Kangning Hospital, Shenzhen, China
E. G. Karam
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry and Clinical Psychology, Faculty of Medicine, Balamand University, Beirut, Lebanon Department of Psychiatry and Clinical Psychology, St George Hospital University Medical Center, Beirut, Lebanon Institute for Development Research Advocacy and Applied Care (IDRAAC), Beirut, Lebanon
V. Kovess-Masfety
Affiliation:
Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Santé Publique (EHESP), EA 4057 Paris Descartes University, Paris, France
S. Lee
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Tai Po, Hong Kong
J. P. Lepine
Affiliation:
Hôpital Lariboisière Fernand Widal, Assistance Publique Hôpitaux de Paris INSERM UMR-S 1144, University Paris Diderot and Paris Descartes, Paris, France
C. C. W. Lim
Affiliation:
Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland, Australia Department of Psychological Medicine, Dunedin School of Medicine, University of Otago, New Zealand
M. E. Medina-Mora
Affiliation:
National Institute of Psychiatry Ramón de la Fuente, Mexico City, Mexico
Z. Mneimneh
Affiliation:
Survey Research Center, Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA IDRAAC, Beirut, Lebanon
B. E. Pennell
Affiliation:
Survey Research Center, Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
M. Piazza
Affiliation:
Universidad Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru National Institute of Health, Lima, Peru
J. Posada-Villa
Affiliation:
Colegio Mayor de Cundinamarca University, Bogota, Colombia
N. Sampson
Affiliation:
Department of Health Care Policy, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
M. C. Viana
Affiliation:
Department of Social Medicine, Federal University of Espírito Santo, Vitoria, Brazil
M. Xavier
Affiliation:
Department of Mental Health, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, Chronic Diseases Research Center (CEDOC) and Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Campo dos Mártires da Pátria, Lisbon, Portugal
E. J. Bromet
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, Stony Brook University School of Medicine, Stony Brook, New York, USA
K. S. Kendler
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, Virginia Commonwealth University, USA
R. C. Kessler
Affiliation:
Department of Health Care Policy, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
*
*Address for correspondence: Professor J. McGrath, Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland, Australia. (Email: j.mcgrath@uq.edu.au)
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Background

Although there is robust evidence linking childhood adversities (CAs) and an increased risk for psychotic experiences (PEs), little is known about whether these associations vary across the life-course and whether mental disorders that emerge prior to PEs explain these associations.

Method

We assessed CAs, PEs and DSM-IV mental disorders in 23 998 adults in the WHO World Mental Health Surveys. Discrete-time survival analysis was used to investigate the associations between CAs and PEs, and the influence of mental disorders on these associations using multivariate logistic models.

Results

Exposure to CAs was common, and those who experienced any CAs had increased odds of later PEs [odds ratio (OR) 2.3, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.9–2.6]. CAs reflecting maladaptive family functioning (MFF), including abuse, neglect, and parent maladjustment, exhibited the strongest associations with PE onset in all life-course stages. Sexual abuse exhibited a strong association with PE onset during childhood (OR 8.5, 95% CI 3.6–20.2), whereas Other CA types were associated with PE onset in adolescence. Associations of other CAs with PEs disappeared in adolescence after adjustment for prior-onset mental disorders. The population attributable risk proportion (PARP) for PEs associated with all CAs was 31% (24% for MFF).

Conclusions

Exposure to CAs is associated with PE onset throughout the life-course, although sexual abuse is most strongly associated with childhood-onset PEs. The presence of mental disorders prior to the onset of PEs does not fully explain these associations. The large PARPs suggest that preventing CAs could lead to a meaningful reduction in PEs in the population.

Keywords

Childhood adversitydiscrete-time survival analysismaladaptive family functioningpopulation attributable risk proportionpsychotic experiencesWorld Mental Health survey
Type
Original Articles
Information
Psychological Medicine , Volume 47 , Issue 7 , May 2017 , pp. 1230 - 1245
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2017 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

† The World Mental Health Survey Collaborators are listed in the Appendix.

References

Akaike, H (1974). A new look at the statistical model identification. IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control 19, 716–723.Google Scholar
Arseneault, L, Cannon, M, Fisher, HL, Polanczyk, G, Moffitt, TE, Caspi, A (2011). Childhood trauma and children's emerging psychotic symptoms: a genetically sensitive longitudinal cohort study. American Journal of Psychiatry 168, 65–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bak, M, Krabbendam, L, Janssen, I, de Graaf, R, Vollebergh, W, van Os, J (2005). Early trauma may increase the risk for psychotic experiences by impacting on emotional response and perception of control. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 112, 360–366.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bentall, RP, de Sousa, P, Varese, F, Wickham, S, Sitko, K, Haarmans, M, Read, J (2014). From adversity to psychosis: pathways and mechanisms from specific adversities to specific symptoms. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 49, 1011–1022.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bentall, RP, Rowse, G, Shryane, N, Kinderman, P, Howard, R, Blackwood, N, Moore, R, Corcoran, R (2009). The cognitive and affective structure of paranoid delusions: a transdiagnostic investigation of patients with schizophrenia spectrum disorders and depression. Archives of General Psychiatry 66, 236–247.Google Scholar
Bentall, RP, Wickham, S, Shevlin, M, Varese, F (2012). Do specific early-life adversities lead to specific symptoms of psychosis? A study from the 2007 the Adult Psychiatric Morbidity Survey. Schizophrenia Bulletin 38, 734–740.Google Scholar
Breslau, N, Peterson, EL, Schultz, LR (2008). A second look at prior trauma and the posttraumatic stress disorder effects of subsequent trauma: a prospective epidemiological study. Archives of General Psychiatry 65, 431–437.Google Scholar
Bruffaerts, R, Demyttenaere, K, Borges, G, Haro, JM, Chiu, WT, Hwang, I, Karam, EG, Kessler, RC, Sampson, N, Alonso, J, Andrade, LH, Angermeyer, M, Benjet, C, Bromet, E, de Girolamo, G, de Graaf, R, Florescu, S, Gureje, O, Horiguchi, I, Hu, C, Kovess, V, Levinson, D, Posada-Villa, J, Sagar, R, Scott, K, Tsang, A, Vassilev, SM, Williams, DR, Nock, MK (2010). Childhood adversities as risk factors for onset and persistence of suicidal behaviour. British Journal of Psychiatry 197, 20–27.Google Scholar
Cole, P, MacMahon, B (1971). Attributable risk percent in case-control studies. British Journal of Preventive and Social Medicine 25, 242–244.Google Scholar
Cristobal-Narvaez, P, Sheinbaum, T, Ballespi, S, Mitjavila, M, Myin-Germeys, I, Kwapil, TR, Barrantes-Vidal, N (2016). Impact of adverse childhood experiences on psychotic-like symptoms and stress reactivity in daily life in nonclinical young adults. PLoS ONE 11, e0153557.Google Scholar
Cutajar, MC, Mullen, PE, Ogloff, JR, Thomas, SD, Wells, DL, Spataro, J (2010). Psychopathology in a large cohort of sexually abused children followed up to 43 years. Child Abuse and Neglect 34, 813–822.Google Scholar
DePrince, AP, Weinzierl, KM, Combs, MD (2009). Executive function performance and trauma exposure in a community sample of children. Child Abuse and Neglect 33, 353–361.Google Scholar
Fisher, HL, Schreier, A, Zammit, S, Maughan, B, Munafo, MR, Lewis, G, Wolke, D (2013). Pathways between childhood victimization and psychosis-like symptoms in the ALSPAC birth cohort. Schizophrenia Bulletin 39, 1045–1055.Google Scholar
Freeman, D, Garety, PA, Kuipers, E, Fowler, D, Bebbington, PE, Dunn, G (2007). Acting on persecutory delusions: the importance of safety seeking. Behaviour Research and Therapy 45, 89–99.Google Scholar
Green, JG, McLaughlin, KA, Berglund, PA, Gruber, MJ, Sampson, NA, Zaslavsky, AM, Kessler, RC (2010). Childhood adversities and adult psychiatric disorders in the national comorbidity survey replication I: associations with first onset of DSM-IV disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry 67, 113–123.Google Scholar
Haro, JM, Arbabzadeh-Bouchez, S, Brugha, TS, de Girolamo, G, Guyer, ME, Jin, R, Lepine, JP, Mazzi, F, Reneses, B, Vilagut, G, Sampson, NA, Kessler, RC (2006). Concordance of the Composite International Diagnostic Interview Version 3.0 (CIDI 3.0) with standardized clinical assessments in the WHO World Mental Health surveys. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research 15, 167–180.Google Scholar
Heleniak, C, Jenness, J, Van der Stoep, A, McCauley, E, McLaughlin, KA (2016). Childhood maltreatment exposure and disruptions in emotion regulation: a transdiagnostic pathway to adolescent internalizing and externalizing psychopathology. Cognitive Therapy and Research 40, 394–415.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Janssen, I, Krabbendam, L, Bak, M, Hanssen, M, Vollebergh, W, de Graaf, R, van Os, J (2004). Childhood abuse as a risk factor for psychotic experiences. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 109, 38–45.Google Scholar
Jeppesen, P, Larsen, JT, Clemmensen, L, Munkholm, A, Rimvall, MK, Rask, CU, van Os, J, Petersen, L, Skovgaard, AM (2015). The CCC2000 birth cohort study of register-based family history of mental disorders and psychotic experiences in offspring. Schizophrenia Bulletin 41, 1084–1094.Google Scholar
Kelleher, I, Cannon, M (2011). Psychotic-like experiences in the general population: characterizing a high-risk group for psychosis. Psychological Medicine 41, 1–6.Google Scholar
Kelleher, I, Harley, M, Lynch, F, Arseneault, L, Fitzpatrick, C, Cannon, M (2008). Associations between childhood trauma, bullying and psychotic symptoms among a school-based adolescent sample. British Journal of Psychiatry 193, 378–382.Google Scholar
Kelleher, I, Keeley, H, Corcoran, P, Ramsay, H, Wasserman, C, Carli, V, Sarchiapone, M, Hoven, C, Wasserman, D, Cannon, M (2013). Childhood trauma and psychosis in a prospective cohort study: cause, effect, and directionality. American Journal of Psychiatry 170, 734–741.Google Scholar
Kendler, KS, Baker, JH (2007). Genetic influences on measures of the environment: a systematic review. Psychological Medicine 37, 615–626.Google Scholar
Kessler, RC, Angermeyer, M, Anthony, JC, Demyttenaere, K, Gasquet, I, Gluzman, S, Gureje, O, Haro, JM, Kawakami, N, Karam, A, Levinson, D, Medina Mora, ME, Oakley Browne, MA, Posada-Villa, J, Stein, DJ, Adley Tsang, CH, Aguilar-Gaxiola, S, Alonso, J, Lee, S, Heeringa, S, Pennell, BE, Berglund, P, Gruber, MJ, Petukhova, M, Chatterji, S, Ustun, TB (2007). Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of mental disorders in the World Health Organization's World Mental Health Survey Initiative. World Psychiatry 6, 168–176.Google Scholar
Kessler, RC, Chiu, WT, Demler, O, Merikangas, KR, Walters, EE (2005). Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of 12-month DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Archives of General Psychiatry 62, 617–627.Google Scholar
Kessler, RC, Haro, JM, Heeringa, SG, Pennell, BE, Ustun, TB (2006). The World Health Organization World Mental Health Survey Initiative. Epidemiologia e Psichiatria Sociale 15, 161–166.Google Scholar
Kessler, RC, McLaughlin, KA, Green, JG, Gruber, MJ, Sampson, NA, Zaslavsky, AM, Aguilar-Gaxiola, S, Alhamzawi, AO, Alonso, J, Angermeyer, M, Benjet, C, Bromet, E, Chatterji, S, de Girolamo, G, Demyttenaere, K, Fayyad, J, Florescu, S, Gal, G, Gureje, O, Haro, JM, Hu, CY, Karam, EG, Kawakami, N, Lee, S, Lepine, JP, Ormel, J, Posada-Villa, J, Sagar, R, Tsang, A, Ustun, TB, Vassilev, S, Viana, MC, Williams, DR (2010). Childhood adversities and adult psychopathology in the WHO World Mental Health Surveys. British Journal of Psychiatry 197, 378–385.Google Scholar
Kessler, RC, Ustun, TB (2004). The World Mental Health (WMH) Survey Initiative Version of the World Health Organization (WHO) Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI). International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research 13, 93–121.Google Scholar
Kessler, RC, Ustun, TB (2008 a). The WHO World Mental Health Surveys: Global Perspectives on the Epidemiology of Mental Disorders. Cambridge University Press: New York Google Scholar
Kessler, RC, Üstün, TB (2008 b). The World Health Organization Composite International Diagnostic Interview. In The WHO World Mental Health Surveys: Global Perspectives on the Epidemiology of Mental Disorders (eds Kessler, R.C. and Üstün, T.B.), pp. 58–90. Cambridge University Press: New York.Google Scholar
Kilcommons, AM, Morrison, AP, Knight, A, Lobban, F (2008). Psychotic experiences in people who have been sexually assaulted. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 43, 602–611.Google Scholar
Koenen, KC, Moffitt, TE, Caspi, A, Gregory, A, Harrington, H, Poulton, R (2008). The developmental mental-disorder histories of adults with posttraumatic stress disorder: a prospective longitudinal birth cohort study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 117, 460–466.Google Scholar
Kramer, IM, Simons, CJ, Myin-Germeys, I, Jacobs, N, Derom, C, Thiery, E, van Os, J, Wichers, M (2012). Evidence that genes for depression impact on the pathway from trauma to psychotic-like symptoms by occasioning emotional dysregulation. Psychological Medicine 42, 283–294.Google Scholar
Linscott, RJ, van Os, J (2013). An updated and conservative systematic review and meta-analysis of epidemiological evidence on psychotic experiences in children and adults: on the pathway from proneness to persistence to dimensional expression across mental disorders. Psychological Medicine 43, 1133–1149.Google Scholar
Marwaha, S, Broome, MR, Bebbington, PE, Kuipers, E, Freeman, D (2014). Mood instability and psychosis: analyses of British national survey data. Schizophrenia Bulletin 40, 269–277.Google Scholar
McCrory, EJ, De Brito, SA, Sebastian, CL, Mechelli, A, Bird, G, Kelly, PA, Viding, E (2011). Heightened neural reactivity to threat in child victims of family violence. Current Biology 21, R947–R948.Google Scholar
McGrath, JJ, Saha, S, Al-Hamzawi, AO, Alonso, J, Andrade, L, Borges, G, Bromet, EJ, Oakley Browne, M, Bruffaerts, R, Caldas de Almeida, JM, Fayyad, J, Florescu, S, de Girolamo, G, Gureje, O, Hu, C, de Jonge, P, Kovess-Masfety, V, Lepine, JP, Lim, CC, Navarro-Mateu, F, Piazza, M, Sampson, N, Posada-Villa, J, Kendler, KS, Kessler, RC (2016 b). Age of onset and lifetime projected risk of psychotic experiences: cross-national data from the World Mental Health Survey. Schizophrenia Bulletin 42, 933–941.Google Scholar
McGrath, JJ, Saha, S, Al-Hamzawi, A, Alonso, J, Bromet, EJ, Bruffaerts, R, Caldas-de-Almeida, JM, Chiu, WT, de Jonge, P, Fayyad, J, Florescu, S, Gureje, O, Haro, JM, Hu, C, Kovess-Masfety, V, Lepine, JP, Lim, CC, Mora, ME, Navarro-Mateu, F, Ochoa, S, Sampson, N, Scott, K, Viana, MC, Kessler, RC (2015). Psychotic experiences in the general population: a cross-national analysis based on 31261 respondents from 18 countries. JAMA Psychiatry 72, 697–705.Google Scholar
McGrath, JJ, Saha, S, Al-Hamzawi, A, Andrade, L, Benjet, C, Bromet, EJ, Browne, MO, Caldas de Almeida, JM, Chiu, WT, Demyttenaere, K, Fayyad, J, Florescu, S, de Girolamo, G, Gureje, O, Haro, JM, Ten Have, M, Hu, C, Kovess-Masfety, V, Lim, CC, Navarro-Mateu, F, Sampson, N, Posada-Villa, J, Kendler, KS, Kessler, RC (2016 a). The bidirectional associations between psychotic experiences and DSM-IV mental disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry 173, 997–1006.Google Scholar
McLaughlin, KA, Conron, KJ, Koenen, KC, Gilman, SE (2010 a). Childhood adversity, adult stressful life events, and risk of past-year psychiatric disorder: a test of the stress sensitization hypothesis in a population-based sample of adults. Psychological Medicine 40, 1647–1658.Google Scholar
McLaughlin, KA, Green, JG, Gruber, MJ, Sampson, NA, Zaslavsky, AM, Kessler, RC (2010 b). Childhood adversities and adult psychiatric disorders in the national comorbidity survey replication II: associations with persistence of DSM-IV disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry 67, 124–132.Google Scholar
McLaughlin, KA, Greif Green, J, Gruber, MJ, Sampson, NA, Zaslavsky, AM, Kessler, RC (2012). Childhood adversities and first onset of psychiatric disorders in a national sample of US adolescents. Archives of General Psychiatry 69, 1151–1160.Google Scholar
McLaughlin, KA, Kubzansky, LD, Dunn, EC, Waldinger, R, Vaillant, G, Koenen, KC (2010c). Childhood social environment, emotional reactivity to stress, and mood and anxiety disorders across the life course. Depression and Anxiety 27, 1087–1094.Google Scholar
McLaughlin, KA, Peverill, M, Gold, AL, Alves, S, Sheridan, MA (2015). Child maltreatment and neural systems underlying emotion regulation. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 54, 753–762.Google Scholar
Morgan, C, Gayer-Anderson, C (2016). Childhood adversities and psychosis: evidence, challenges, implications. World Psychiatry 15, 93–102.Google Scholar
Muenzenmaier, KH, Seixas, AA, Schneeberger, AR, Castille, DM, Battaglia, J, Link, BG (2015). Cumulative effects of stressful childhood experiences on delusions and hallucinations. Journal Trauma Dissociation 16, 442–462.Google Scholar
Murphy, J, Houston, JE, Shevlin, M, Adamson, G (2013). Childhood sexual trauma, cannabis use and psychosis: statistically controlling for pre-trauma psychosis and psychopathology. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 48, 853–861.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murphy, J, Shevlin, M, Houston, JE, Adamson, G (2014). Modelling the co-occurrence of psychosis-like experiences and childhood sexual abuse. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 49, 1037–1044.Google Scholar
Nuevo, R, Chatterji, S, Verdes, E, Naidoo, N, Arango, C, Ayuso-Mateos, JL (2010). The continuum of psychotic symptoms in the general population: a cross-national study. Schizophrenia Bulletin 36, 475–485.Google Scholar
Read, J, Agar, K, Argyle, N, Aderhold, V (2003). Sexual and physical abuse during childhood and adulthood as predictors of hallucinations, delusions and thought disorder. Psychology and Psychotherapy 76, 1–22.Google Scholar
Read, J, van Os, J, Morrison, AP, Ross, CA (2005). Childhood trauma, psychosis and schizophrenia: a literature review with theoretical and clinical implications. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 112, 330–350.Google Scholar
Rossler, W, Hengartner, MP, Ajdacic-Gross, V, Haker, H, Angst, J (2014). Impact of childhood adversity on the onset and course of subclinical psychosis symptoms--results from a 30-year prospective community study. Schizophrenia Research 153, 189–195.Google Scholar
Rothman, KJ, Greenland, S (2005). Causation and causal inference in epidemiology. American Journal of Public Health 95 (Suppl. 1), S144–S150.Google Scholar
Saha, S, Scott, JG, Johnston, AK, Slade, TN, Varghese, D, Carter, GL, McGrath, JJ (2011 a). The association between delusional-like experiences and suicidal thoughts and behaviour. Schizophrenia Research 132, 197–202.Google Scholar
Saha, S, Scott, JG, Varghese, D, Degenhardt, L, Slade, T, McGrath, JJ (2011 b). The association between delusional-like experiences, and tobacco, alcohol or cannabis use: a nationwide population-based survey. BMC Psychiatry 11, 202–210.Google Scholar
Schwarz, G (1978). Estimating the dimension of a model. Annals of Statistics 6, 461–464.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scott, J, Varghese, D, McGrath, J (2010). As the twig is bent, the tree inclines: adult mental health consequences of childhood adversity. Archives of General Psychiatry 67, 111–112.Google Scholar
Shevlin, M, Dorahy, M, Adamson, G (2007). Childhood traumas and hallucinations: an analysis of the National Comorbidity Survey. Journal of Psychiatric Research 41, 222–228.Google Scholar
Sitko, K, Bentall, RP, Shevlin, M, O'Sullivan, N, Sellwood, W (2014). Associations between specific psychotic symptoms and specific childhood adversities are mediated by attachment styles: an analysis of the national comorbidity survey. Psychiatry Research 217, 202–209.Google Scholar
Trotta, A, Murray, RM, Fisher, HL (2015). The impact of childhood adversity on the persistence of psychotic symptoms: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychological Medicine 45, 2481–2498.Google Scholar
van Dam, DS, van der Ven, E, Velthorst, E, Selten, JP, Morgan, C, de Haan, L (2012). Childhood bullying and the association with psychosis in non-clinical and clinical samples: a review and meta-analysis. Psychological Medicine 42, 2463–2474.Google Scholar
van Dam, DS, van Nierop, M, Viechtbauer, W, Velthorst, E, van Winkel, R, Bruggeman, R, Cahn, W, de Haan, L, Kahn, RS, Meijer, CJ, Myin-Germeys, I, van Os, J, Wiersma, D (2015). Childhood abuse and neglect in relation to the presence and persistence of psychotic and depressive symptomatology. Psychological Medicine 45, 1363–1377.Google Scholar
Varese, F, Smeets, F, Drukker, M, Lieverse, R, Lataster, T, Viechtbauer, W, Read, J, van Os, J, Bentall, RP (2012). Childhood adversities increase the risk of psychosis: a meta-analysis of patient-control, prospective- and cross-sectional cohort studies. Schizophrenia Bulletin 38, 661–671.Google Scholar
Varghese, D, Saha, S, Scott, JD, Chan, RC, McGrath, JJ (2011). The association between family history of mental disorder and delusional-like experiences: a general population study. American Journal of Medical Genetics. Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics 156B, 478–483.Google Scholar
Wigman, JT, van Winkel, R, Jacobs, N, Wichers, M, Derom, C, Thiery, E, Vollebergh, WA, van Os, J (2011 a). A twin study of genetic and environmental determinants of abnormal persistence of psychotic experiences in young adulthood. American Journal of Medical Genetics. Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics 156b, 546–552.Google Scholar
Wigman, JT, van Winkel, R, Raaijmakers, QA, Ormel, J, Verhulst, FC, Reijneveld, SA, van Os, J, Vollebergh, WA (2011 b). Evidence for a persistent, environment-dependent and deteriorating subtype of subclinical psychotic experiences: a 6-year longitudinal general population study. Psychological Medicine 41, 2317–2329.Google Scholar
Wolke, D, Lereya, ST, Fisher, HL, Lewis, G, Zammit, S (2014). Bullying in elementary school and psychotic experiences at 18 years: a longitudinal, population-based cohort study. Psychological Medicine 44, 2199–2211.Google Scholar
Supplementary material: File

McGrath supplementary material

Tables S1-S5

Download McGrath supplementary material(File)
File 40.2 KB