Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-dzt6s Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-28T02:37:27.523Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Contribution to the differential diagnosis of dementias. 2: Neuroimaging

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  17 November 2008

Hans Förstl*
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry and Division of Neuroradiology, Central Institute of Mental Health, Mannheim, Germany
Frank Hentschel
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry and Division of Neuroradiology, Central Institute of Mental Health, Mannheim, Germany
*
H. Förstl, Central Institute of Mental Health, J5, 68159 Mannheim, Germany.

Abstract

Image of the first page of this content. For PDF version, please use the ‘Save PDF’ preceeding this image.'
Type
Psychiatry of old age
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1994

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1Crease, RP. Biomedicine in the age of imaging. Science 1993; 261: 554–61.Google Scholar
2Burns, A. Cranial computerised tomography in dementia of the Alzheimer type. Br J Psychiatry 1990; 157 (suppl 9): 1015.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
3Friedland, RP, Koss, E, Haxby, JV et al. Alzheimer disease: clinical and biological heterogeneity. Ann Int Med 1988; 109: 298311.Google Scholar
4Riege, WH, Metter, EJ. Cognitive and brain imaging measures of Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Aging 1988; 9: 6986.Google Scholar
5Förstl, H, Sattel, H, Bahro, M. Alzheimer's disease: clinical features. Int Rev Psychiatry 1993; 5: 327–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
6DeCarli, C, Kaye, JA, Horwitz, B, Rapoport, SI. Critical analysis of the use of computer assisted transverse axial tomography to study human brain in aging and dementia of the Alzheimer type. Neurology 1990; 40: 872–83.Google Scholar
7Erkinjuntti, T, Sulkava, R. Brain imaging and diagnosis of dementia. In: Gottfries, CG, Levy, R, Clincke, G, Tritsmans, L eds. Diagnostic and therapeutic assessments in Alzheimer's disease. Wrightson Biomedical, 1991: 1735.Google Scholar
8Coffey, CE, Wilkinson, WE, Parashos, IA et al. Quantitative cerebral anatomy of the aging human brain: a cross-sectional study using magnetic resonance imaging. Neurology 1992; 42: 527–36.Google Scholar
9Jernigan, TL, Archibald, SL, Berhow, MT et al. Cerebral structure on MRI, part I: localization of age-related changes. Biol Psychiatry 1991; 29: 5567.Google Scholar
10Lim, KO, Zipursky, RB, Murphy, GM, Pfefferbaum, A. In vivo quantification of the limbic system using MRI: effects of normal aging. Psychiatry Res 1990; 35: 1526.Google Scholar
11Weis, S, Jellinger, K, Wenger, E. Morphometry of the corpus callosum in normal aging and Alzheimer's disease. J Neural Trans Suppl 1991; 33: 3538.Google Scholar
12Sandor, T, Albert, M, Stafford, J, Kemper, T. Symmetrical and asymmetrical changes in brain tissue with age as measured on CT scans. Neurobiol Aging 1990; 11: 2127.Google Scholar
13Drayer, BP. Imaging of the aging brain, part I. normal findings. Radiology 1988; 166: 785–96.Google Scholar
14Davis, PC, Gray, L, Albert, M et al. The consortium to establish a registry for Alzheimer's disease (CERAD). Part III. Reliablity of a standardized MRI evaluation of Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 1992; 42: 1676–80.Google Scholar
15Kido, DK, Caine, ED, LeMay, M et al. Temporal lobe atrophy in patients with Alzheimer's disease: a CT study. Am J Neuroradiol 1989; 10: 551–55.Google Scholar
16Förstl, H, Burns, A, Jacoby, R, Eagger, S, Levy, R. Quantitative CT-scan analysis in senile dementia of the Alzheimer type: I. computerized planimetry of cerebrospinal fluid spaces. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 1991; 60: 709–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
17Förstl, H, Burns, A, Jacoby, R, Eagger, S, Levy, R. Quantitative CT-scan analysis in senile dementia of the Alzheimer type: II. radioattenuation of grey and white matter. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 1991; 6: 715–19.Google Scholar
18Rusinek, H, de Leon, MJ, George, AE et al. Alzheimer disease: measuring loss of cerebral gray matter with MR imaging. Radiology 1991; 178: 109–14.Google Scholar
19Sandor, T, Jolesz, F, Tieman, J et al. Comparative analysis of computed tomographic and magnetic resonance imaging scans in Alzheimer patients and controls. Arch Neurol 1992; 49: 381–84.Google Scholar
20Leys, D, Pruvo, JP, Petit, H, Gaudet, Y, Clarisse, J. Maladie d'Alzheimer. Analyse statistique des resultat du scanner X. Rev Neurol 1989; 145: 134–39.Google Scholar
21Sullivan, E V, Shear, PK, Mathalon, DH et al. Greater abnormalities of brain cerebrospinal fluid volumes in younger than in older patients with Alzheimer's disease. Arch Neurol 1993; 50: 359–73.Google Scholar
22Burns, A, Jacoby, R, Levy, R. Computed tomography in Alzheimer's disease: a longitudinal study. Biol Psychiatry 1991; 29: 383–90.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
23de Leon, M, George, A, Reisberg, B et al. Alzheimer's disease: longitudinal CT-studies of ventricular change. Am J Radial 1989; 152: 1257–62.Google Scholar
24Soininen, H, Reinikainen, KJ, Puranen, M et al. Wide third ventricle correlates with low choline acetyltransferase activityof the neocortex in Alzheimer patients. Alzheimer/Dis Assoc Disord 1993; 7: 3947.Google Scholar
25Förstl, H, Burns, A, Levy, R, Cairns, N. Neuropathological basis for drawing disability (constructional apraxia) in Alzheimer's disease. Psychol Med 1993; 23: 623–29.Google Scholar
26George, AE, de Leon, MJ, Stylopoulos, LA et al. CT diagnostic features of Alzheimer disease: importance of the choroidal/hippocampal fissure complex. Am J Neuroradiol 1990; 11: 101107.Google ScholarPubMed
27de Leon, MJ, George, AE, Stylopoulos, LA, Smith, G, Miller, DC. Early marker for Alzheimer's disease: the atrophie hippocampus. Lancet 1989; ii: 672–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
28de Leon, MJ. Hippocampal formation atrophy in ageing and the prediction of Alzheimer's disease. Ageing and Dementia 1993; 1: 103–24.Google Scholar
29de Leon, MJ, Colomb, J, George, AE et al. The radiologie prediction of Alzheimer disease: the atrophic hippocampal formation. Am J Neuroradiol 1993;14: 897906.Google Scholar
30Förstl, H. Clinical findings in patients with Alzheimer's disease and in ‘memory complainers’ attending a memory clinic. Neurol Psychiatry 1994 (in press).Google Scholar
31Jack, CR, Petersen, RC, O'Brien, PC, Tangalos, EG. MR-based hippocampal volumetry in the diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 1992; 42: 183–88.Google Scholar
32Kesslak, JP, Nalcioglu, O, Cotman, CW. Quantification of magnetic resonance scans for hippocampal and parahippocampal atrophy in Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 1991; 41: 5154.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
33Seab, JP, Jagust, WJ, Wong, STS et al. Quantitative NMR measurements of hippocampal atrophy in Alzheimer's disease. Magn Reson Med 1988; 8: 200208.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
34Huesgen, CT, Burger, PC, Crain, BJ, Johnson, GA. In vitro MR microscopy of the hippocampus in Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 1993; 43: 145–52.Google Scholar
35Beats, B, Burns, A, Levy, R. Single photon emission tomography in dementia. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 1991; 6: 5762.Google Scholar
36Devous, MD. Comparison of SPECT applications in neurology and psychiatry. J Clin Psychiatry 1992; 53 (suppl 11): 1319.Google Scholar
37Postiglione, A, Lassen, NA, Holman, BL. Cerebral blood flow in patients with dementia of Alzheimer's type. Aging 1993; 5: 1926.Google Scholar
38Besson, JAO, Crawford, JR, Parker, DM et al. Multimodal imaging in Alzheimer's disease – the relationship between MRI, SPECT, cognitive and pathological changes. Br J Psychiatry 1990; 157: 216–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
39Burns, A, Philpot, MP, Costa, DC, Ell, PJ, Levy, R. The investigation of Alzheimer's disease with single photon emission tomography. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1989; 52: 248–53.Google Scholar
40Curran, SM, Murray, CM, Van Beck, M et al. A single photon emission computerised tomography study of regional brain function in elderly patients with major depression and with Alzheimer-type dementia. Br J Psychiatry 1993; 163: 155–65.Google Scholar
41Eberling, JL, Reed, BR, Baker, MG, Jagust, WJ. Cognitive correlates of regional cerebral blood flow in Alzheimer's disease. Arch Neurol 1993; 50: 761–66.Google Scholar
42Goldenberg, G, Podreka, I, Suess, E, Deecke, L. The cerebral localization of neuropsychological impairment in Alzheimer's disease: a SPECT study. J Neurol 1989; 236: 131–38.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
43Grady, CL, Haxby, JV, Horwitz, B et al. Activation of cerebral blood flow during a visuoperceptual task in patients with Alzheimer-type dementia. Neurobiol Aging 1993; 14: 3544.Google Scholar
44Jagust, WJ, Reed, BR, Seab, JP, Budinger, TF. Alzheimer's disease – age at onset and single-photon emission computed tomographic patterns of regional cerebral blood flow. Arch Neurol 1990; 47: 628–33.Google Scholar
45Jobst, KA, Smith, AD, Barker, CS et al. Association of atrophy of the medial temporal lobe with reduced blood flow in the posterior parietotemporal cortex in patients with a clinical and pathological diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1992; 55: 190–94.Google Scholar
46Kwa, VIH, Weinstein, HC, Posthumus Meyjes, EF et al. Spectral analysis of the EEG nd 99m-Tc-HMPAO SPECT-Scan in Alzheimer's disease. Biol Psychiatry 1993; 33: 100107.Google Scholar
47Montaldi, D, Brooks, DN, McCol, JH et al. Measurements of regional cerebral blood flow and cognitive performance in Alzheimer's disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1990; 53: 3338.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
48Pearlson, GD, Harris, GJ, Powers, RE et al. Quantitative changes in mesial temporal volume, regional cerebral blood flow, and cognition in Alzheimer's disease. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1992; 49: 402408.Google Scholar
49Prohovnik, I, Mayeux, R, Sackeim, HA et al. Cerebral perfusion as a diagnostic marker of early Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 1988; 38: 931–37.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
50Reed, BR, Jagust, WJ, Seab, JP, Ober, BA. Memory and regional cerebral blood flow in mildly symptomatic Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 1989; 39: 1537–39.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
51Reed, BR, Jagust, WJ, Coulter, L. Anosognosia in Alzheimer's disease: relationships to depression, cognitive function, and cerebral perfusion. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 1993; 15: 231–44.Google Scholar
52Riddle, W, O'Carroll, RE, Dougall, N et al. A single photon emission computerised tomography study of regional brain function underlying verbal memory in patients with Alzheimer-type dementia. Br J Psychiatry 1993; 163: 166–72.Google Scholar
53Stern, Y, Alexander, GE, Prohovnik, I, Mayeux, R. Inverse relationship between education and parietotemporal perfusion deficit in Alzheimer's disease. Ann Neurol 1992; 32: 371–75.Google Scholar
54Weinstein, HC, Haan, J, van Royen, EA et al. SPECT in the diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease and multi-infarct-dementia. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 1991; 93: 3943.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
55Jamieson, D, Alavi, A, Jolies, P, Chawluk, J, Reivich, M. Positron emission computerised tomography in the investigation of central nervous system disorders. Radial Clin N Am 1988; 26: 1075–88.Google Scholar
56Wiesel, F-A. Positron emission tomography in psychiatry. Psychiat Dev 1989; 1: 1947.Google Scholar
57Burns, A, Tune, L, Steele, C, Folstein, M. Positron emission tomography in dementia: a clinical review. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 1989; 4: 6772.Google Scholar
58Cutler, NR, Narang, PK. Alzheimer's disease, dementia and Down syndrome: an evaluation using positron emission tomography (PET). J Mind Behavior 1988; 9: 351–66.Google Scholar
59Azari, NP, Pettigrew, KD, Schapiro, MB et al. Early detection of Alzheimer's disease: a statistical approach using positron emission tomographic data. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 1993; 13: 438–47.Google Scholar
60Buchsbaum, MS, Kesslak, P, Lynch, G et al. Temporal and hippocampal metabolic rate during an olfactory memory task assessed by positron emission tomography in patients with dementia of the Alzheimer type and controls. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1991; 48: 840–47.Google Scholar
61Friedland, RP, Jagust, WJ, Huesman, RH et al. Regional cerebral glucose transport and utilization in Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 1989; 39: 1427–34.Google Scholar
62Goto, I, Taniwaki, T, Hosokawa, S et al. Positron emission tomographic (PET) studies in dementia. J Neurol Sci 1993; 114: 16.Google Scholar
63Guze, BH, Hoffman, JM, Mazziotta, JC, Baxter, LR, Phelps, ME. Positron emission tomography and familial Alzheimer's disease: a pilot study. J Am Geriatr Soc 1992; 40: 120–23.Google Scholar
64Haxby, JV, Grady, CL, Koss, E et al. Heterogeneous anterior-posterior metabolic patterns in dementia of the Alzheimer type. Neurology 1988; 38: 1853–63.Google Scholar
65Haxby, JV, Grady, CL, Koss, E et al. Longitudinal study of cerebral metabolic asymmetries and associated neuropsychological patterns in early dementia of the Alzheimer type. Arch Neurol 1990; 47: 753–60.Google Scholar
66Hoyer, S, Oesterreich, K, Wagner, O. Glucose metabolism as the site of the primary abnormality in early-onset dementia of Alzheimer type? J Neurol 1988; 235: 143–48.Google Scholar
67Jagust, WJ, Friedland, RP, Budinger, TF, Koss, E, Ober, B. Longitudinal studies of regional cerebral metabolism in Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 1988; 38: 909–12.Google Scholar
68Mann, UM, Mohr, E, Gearing, M, Chase, TN. Heterogeneity in Alzheimer's disease: progression rate segregated by distinct neuropsychological and cerebral metabolic profiles. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1992; 55: 956–59.Google Scholar
69Murphy, DGM, Bottomley, PA, Salterno, JA et al. In in vivo study of phosphorus and glucose metabolism in Alzheimer's disease using magnetic resonance spectroscopy and PET. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1993; 50: 341–49.Google Scholar
70Nybäck, H, Nyman, H, Blomqvist, G, Sjögren, I, Stone-Elander, S. Brain metabolism in Alzheimer's dementia: studies of 11C-deoxyglucose accumulation, CSF monoamine metabolites and neuropsychological test performance in patients and healthy subjects. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1991;54: 672–78.Google Scholar
71Small, GW, Kuhl, DE, Riege, WH et al. Cerebral glucose metabolic patterns in Alzheimer's disease. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1989; 46: 527–32.Google Scholar
72Smith, GS. de Leon, MJ, George, AE et al. Topography of cross-sectional and longitudinal glucose metabolic deficits in Alzheimer's disease. Arch Neurol 1992; 49: 1142–50.Google Scholar
73Szelies, B, Grond, M, Herholz, K et al. Quantitative EEG mapping and PET in Alzheimer's disease. J Neurol Sci 1992; 110: 4656.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
74Besthorn, C, Sattel, H, Geiger-Kabisch, C, Schreiter-Gasser, U, Förstl, H. EEG coherences in Alzheimer disease. EEG Clin Neurophysiol 1994; 50: 242–45.Google Scholar
75Schreiter-Gasser, U, Gasser, T, Ziegler, P. Quantitative EEC-analysis in early onset Alzheimer's disease: a controlled study. EEG Clin Neurophysiol 1993; 86: 1522.Google Scholar
76Benson, DF, Davis, RJ, Snyder, BD. Posterior corticalatrophy. Arch Neurol 1988; 45: 789–93.Google Scholar
77Caselli, RJ, Jack, CR. Asymmetric cortical degeneration syndromes. Arch Neurol 1992; 49: 770–80.Google Scholar
78Green, J, Morris, JC, Sandson, J, McKeel, DW, Miller, JW. Progressive aphasia: a precursor of global dementia? Neurology 1990; 40: 423–29.Google Scholar
79Knopman, DS, Christensen, KJ, Schut, LJ et al. The specturm of imaging and neuropsychological findings in Pick's disease. Neurology 1989; 39: 362–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
80Mendez, MF, Selwood, A, Mastri, AR, Frey, WH. Pick's disease versus Alzheimer's disease: a comparison of clinical characteristics. Neurology 1993; 43: 289–92.Google Scholar
81Miller, BL, Cummings, JL, Villanueva-Meyer, J et al. Frontal lobe degeneration: clinical, neuropsychological, and SPECT characteristics. Neurology 1991; 41: 1374–82.Google Scholar
82Neary, D, Snowden, JS, Northen, B, Goulding, P. Dementia of frontal lobe type. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1988; 51: 353–61.Google Scholar
83Risberg, J, Passant, U, Warkentin, S, Gustafson, L. Regional cerebral blood flow in frontal lobe dementia of non-Alzheimer type. Dementia 1993; 4: 186–87.Google Scholar
84Snowden, JS, Neary, D, Mann, DMA, Goulding, PJ, Testa, HJ. Progressive language disorder due to lobar atrophy. Ann Neurol 1992; 31: 174–83.Google Scholar
85Tyrrell, PJ, Warrington, EK, Frackowiak, RSJ, Rossor, MN. Heterogeneity in progressive aphasia due to focal cortical atrophy. Brain 1990; 113: 1321–36.Google Scholar
86Baldwin, B, Förstl, H. Pick's disease – 101 years on: still there, but in need of reform. Br J Psychiatry 1991; 163: 100104.Google Scholar
87Aharon-Peretz, J, Cummings, JL, Hill, MA. Vascular dementia and dementia of the Alzheimer type – cognition, ventricular size, and leuko-araiosis. Arch Neurol 1988; 45: 719–21.Google Scholar
88Almkvist, O, Wahlund, L-O, Andersson-Lundman, G, Basun, H, Bäckman, L. White-matter hyperintensity and neuropsychological functions in dementia and healthy aging. Arch Neurol 1992; 49: 626–32.Google Scholar
89Bondareff, W, Raval, J, Woo, B, Hauser, DL, Colletti, PM. Magnetic resonance imaging and the severity of dementia in older adults. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1990; 47: 4751.Google Scholar
90Diaz, JF, Merskey, H, Hachinski, VC et al. Improved recognition of leukoaraiosis and cognitive impairment in Alzheimer's disease. Arch Neurol 1991; 48: 1022–25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
91Fukuda, H, Kobayashi, S, Okada, K, Tsunematsu, T. Frontal white matter lesions and dementia in lacunar infarction. Stroke 1990; 21: 1143–49.Google Scholar
92Harrell, LE, Duvall, E, Folks, DG et al. The relationship of high-intensity signals on magnetic resonance images to cognition and psychiatric state in Alzheimer's disease. Arch Neurol 1991; 48: 1136–40.Google Scholar
93Hendrie, HC, Farlow, MR, Austrom, MG, Edwards, MK, Williams, MA. Foci of increased signal intensity on brain MR scans of healthy elderly subjects. Am J Neuroradiol 1989; 10: 703707.Google Scholar
94Hunt, AL, Orrison, WW, Yeo, RA et al. Clinical significance of MRI white matter lesions in the elderly. Neurol 1989; 39: 1470–74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
95Junque, C, Pujol, J, Vendrell, P et al. Leuko-araiosis on magnetic resonance imaging and speed of mental processing. Arch Neurol 1990; 47: 151–56.Google Scholar
96Kawamura, J, Meyer, JS, Ichijo, M et al. Correlations of leuko-araiosis with cerebral atrophy and perfusion in elderly normal subjects and demented patients. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1993; 56: 182–87.Google Scholar
97Kertesz, A, Polk, M, Carr, T. Cognition and white matter changes on magnetic resonance imaging in dementia. Arch Neurol 1990; 47: 387–91.Google Scholar
98Kobari, M, Stirling Meyer, J, Ichijo, M. Leukoaraiosis, cerebral atrophy, and cerebral perfusion in normal aging. Arch Neurol 1990; 47: 161–65.Google Scholar
99Kozachuk, WE, DeCarli, C, Schapiro, MB et al. White matter hyperintensities in dementia of Alzheimer's type and in healthy subjects without cerebrovascular risk factors. Arch Neurol 1990; 47: 1306–10.Google Scholar
100Kumar, A, Yousem, D, Souder, E et al. High-intensity signals in Alzheimer's disease without cerebrovascular risk factors: a magnetic resonance imaging evaluation. Am J Psychiatry 1992; 149: 248–50.Google Scholar
101Leys, D, Soetaert, G, Petit, H et al. Periventricular and white matter magnetic resonance imaging hyperintensities do not differ between Alzheimer's disase and normal aging. Arch Neurol 1990; 47: 524–27.Google Scholar
102Lopez, OL, Becker, JT, Rezek, D et al. Neuropsychiatrie correlates of cerebral white-matter radiolucencies in probable Alzheimer's disease. Arch Neurol 1992; 49: 828–34.Google Scholar
103Matsubayashi, K, Shimada, K, Kawamoto, A, Ozawa, T. Incidental brain lesions on magnetic resonance imaging and neurobehavioral functions in the apparently healthy elderly. Stroke 1992; 23: 175–80.Google Scholar
104McDonald, WM, Krishnan, KRR, Murali Doraiswamy, P et al. Magnetic resonance findings in patients with early-onset Alzheimer's disease. Biol Psychiatry 1991; 29: 799810.Google Scholar
105Mirsen, TR, Lee, DH, Wong, CJ et al. Clinical correlates of white-matter changes on magnetic resonance imaging scans of the brain. Arch Neurol 1991; 48: 1015–21.Google Scholar
106Rao, SM, Mittenberg, W, Bernardin, L, Haughton, V, Leo, GJ. Neuropsychological test findings in subjects with leukoaraiosis. Arch Neurol 1989; 46: 4044.Google Scholar
107Scheltens, Ph, Barkhof, F, Valk, J et al. White matter lesions on magnetic resonance imaging in clinically diagnosed Alzheimer's disease. Brain 1992; 115: 735–48.Google Scholar
108Schmidt, R, Fazekas, F, Offenbacher, H et al. Magnetic resonance imaging white matter lesions and cognitive impairment in hypertensive individuals. Arch Neurol 1991; 48: 417–20.Google Scholar
109Skoog, I, Palmertz, B, Andreasson, L-A. The prevalence of white matter lesions on computed tomography of the brain in demented and non-demented 85-year-olds. J Geriat Psychiatry Neurol 1994 (in press).Google Scholar
110van Swieten, JC, Geyskes, GG, Derix, MMA et al. Hypertension in the elderly is associated with white matter lesions and cognitive decline. Ann Neurol 1991; 30: 825–30.Google Scholar
111Tupler, LA, Coffey, CE, Logue, PE, Djang, WT, Fagan, SM. Neuropsychological importance of subcortical white matter hyperintensity. Arch Neurol 1992; 49: 1248–52.Google Scholar
112Ylikoski, R, Ylikoski, A, Erkinjuntti, T et al. White matter changes in healthy elderly persons correlate with attention and speed of mental processing. Arch Neurol 1993; 50: 818–24.Google Scholar
113Fein, G, van Dyke, C, Davenport, L et al. Preservation of normal cognitive functioning in elderly subjects with extensive white-matter lesions of long duration. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1990; 47: 220–23.Google Scholar
114Hauser, RA, Lacey, M, Reed Knight, M. Hypertensive encephalopathy – magnetic resonance imaging demonstration of reversible cortical and white matter lesions. Arch Neurol 1988; 45: 1078–83.Google Scholar
115Bots, ML, van Swieten, JC, Breteler, MMB et al. Cerebral white matter lesions and atherosclerosis in the Rotterdam Study. Lancet 1993; 341: 1232–37.Google Scholar
116Masdeu, JC, Wolfson, L, Lantos, G et al. Brain white-matter changes in the elderly prone to falling. Arch Neurol 1989; 46: 1292–96.Google Scholar
117Kato, H, Sugawara, Y, Ito, H, Kogure, K. White matter lucencies in multi-infarct dementia: a somatosensory evoked potentials and CT study. Acta Neurol Scand 1990; 81: 181–83.Google Scholar
118Herholz, K, Heindel, W, Rackl, A et al. Regional cerebral blood flow in patients with leuko-araiosis and atherosclerotic carotid artery disease. Arch Neurol 1990; 47: 392–96.Google Scholar
119Pantoni, L, Inzitari, D, Pracucci, G et al. Cerebrospinal fluid proteins with leucoaraiosis: possible abnormalities in blood-brain barrier function. J Neurol Sci 1993; 115: 125–31.Google Scholar
120Grafton, ST, Sumi, SM, Stimac, GK et al. Comparison of postmortem magnetic resonance imaging and neuropathologic findings in the cerebral white matter. Arch Neurol 1991; 48: 293–98.Google Scholar
121Janota, I, Mirsen, TR, Hachinski, VC, Lee, DG, Merskey, H. Neuropathologic correlates of leukoaraiosis. Arch Neurol 1989; 46: 1124–28.Google Scholar
122Revesz, T, Hawkins, CP, du Boulay, EPGH, Barnard, RO, McDonald, WI. Pathological findings correlated with magnetic resonance imaging in subcortical arteriosclerotic encephalopathy (Binswanger's disease). J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1989; 52: 137–44.Google Scholar
123van Swieten, JC, van den Hout, JHW, van Ketel, BA et al. Periventricular lesions in the white matter on magnetic resonance imaging in the elderly. Brain 1991; 114: 761–74.Google Scholar
124Yamanouchi, H. Loss of white matter oligodendrocytes and astrocytes in progressive subcortical vascular encephalopathy of Binswanger type. Acta Neurol Scand 1991; 83: 301305.Google Scholar
125Fazekas, F, Kleinen, R, Offenbacher, H et al. Pathologie correlates of incidental MRI white matter signal hyperintensities. Neurology 1993; 43: 1683–89.Google Scholar
126Roman, GC, Tatemichi, TK, Erkinjuntti, T et al. Vascular dementia: diagnostic criteria for research studies - report of the NINDS-AIREN international workshop. Neurology 1993; 43: 250–60.Google Scholar
127Erkinjuntti, T, Haltia, M, Palo, J, Sulkava, R, Pateau, A. Accuracy of the clinical diagnosis of vascular dementia: a prospective clinical and post-mortem neuropathological study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1988; 51: 1037–44.Google Scholar
128Ettlin, TM, Staehelin, HB, Kischka, U et al. Computed tomography, electroencephalography, and clinical features in the differential diagnosis of senile dementia – a prospective clinicopathologic study. Arch Neurol 1989; 46: 1217–20.Google Scholar
129Spano, A, Förstl, H, Almeida, OP, Levy, R. Neuroimaging and the differential diagnosis of early dementia: quantiative CT-scan analysis in patients attending a memory clinic. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 1992; 7: 879–83.Google Scholar
130Loeb, C, Gandolfo, C, Bino, G. Intellectual impairment and cerebral lesions in multiple cerebral infarcts. Stroke 1988; 19: 560–65.Google Scholar
131McKeith, IG, Bartholomew, PH, Irvine, EM et al. Single photon emission computerised tomography in elderly patients with Alzheimer's disease and multi-infarct dementia – regional uptake of technetium-labelled HMPAO related to clinical measurements. Br J Psychiatry 1993; 163: 597603.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
132Kawabata, K, Tachibana, H, Sugita, M, Fukuchi, M. A comparative I-123 IMP SPECT study in Binswanger's disease and Alzheimer's disease. Clin Nuclear Med 1993; 18: 329–36.Google Scholar
133Szelies, B, Herholz, K, Pawlik, G et al. Widespread functional effects of discrete thalamic infarction. Arch Neurol 1991; 48: 178–82.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
134Braffman, PH, Grossman, RI, Golbert, HI et al. MR imaging of Parkinson's disease with spin-echo and gradient echo sequences. Am J Roentgenol 1989; 152: 159–65.Google Scholar
135Huber, SJ, Chakeres, DW, Paulson, GW, Khanna, R. Magnetic resonance imaging in Parkinson's disease. Arch Neurol 1990; 47: 735–37.Google Scholar
136Pujol, J, Junque, C, Vendrell, P, Grau, J, Capdevila, A. Reduction of the substantia nigra width and motor decline in aging and Parkinson's disease. Arch Neurol 1992; 49: 1119–22.Google Scholar
137Pizzolato, G, Dam, M, Borsaio, N et al. 99-Tc-HMPAO SPECT in Parkinson's disease. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 1988; 8: S101–S108.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
138Brooks, DJ, Ibanez, V, Sawle, GV et al. Differing patterns of striatal 18-F-dopa uptake in Parkinson's disease, multiple systems atrophy and progressive supranuclear palsy. Ann Neurol 1990; 28: 547–55.Google Scholar
139Leenders, KL, Salmon, EP, Tyrrell, P et al. The nigrostriatal dopaminergic system assessed in vivo by positron emission tomography in healthy volunteer subjects and patients with Parkinson's disease. Arch Neurol 1990; 47: 1290–98.Google Scholar
140Sawle, GV. The detection of preclinical Parkinson's disease: what is the role of positron emission tomography? Movement Disord 1993; 8: 271–77.Google Scholar
141De Voider, AG, Francart, J, Laterre, C et al. Decreased glucose utilization in the striatum and frontal lobe in probable striatonigral degeneration. Ann Neurol 1989; 26: 239–47.Google Scholar
142Goffinet, AM, De Voider, AG, Gillain, C et al. Positron tomography demonstrates frontal lobe hypometabolism in progressive supranuclear palsy. Ann Neurol 1989; 25: 131–39.Google Scholar
143Testa, HJ, Snowden, JS, Neary, D et al. The use of 99-Tc-HMPAO in the diagnosis of primary degenerative dementia. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 1988; 8: S123–S126.Google Scholar
144Wolters, ECh, Huang, C-C, Clark, C et al. Positron emission tomography in manganese intoxication. Ann Neurol 1989; 26: 647–51.Google Scholar
145Förstl, H, Burns, A, Luthert, P, Cairns, N, Levy, R. The Lewy-body variant of Alzheimer's disease: clinical and pathological findings. Br J Psychiatry 1993; 162: 385–92.Google Scholar
146Jernigan, TL, Salmon, DP, Butters, N, Hesselink, JR. Cerebral structure on MRI, part II: specific changes in Alzheimer's and Huntington's diseases. Biol Psychiatry 1991; 29: 6881.Google Scholar
147Aylward, EH, Karagiozis, H, Pearlson, G, Folstein, MF. Suprasellar cistern measures as a reflection of dementia in Alzheimer's disease but not Huntington's disease. J Psychiatry Res 1991; 25: 3147.Google Scholar
148Starkstein, SE, Folstein, SE, Brandt, J, Pearson, GD, McDonnell, A, Folstein, M. Brain atrophy in Huntington's disease: a CT-scan study. Neuroradiol 1989; 31: 156–59.Google Scholar
149Reid, IC, Besson, JAO, Best, PV et al. Imaging of cerebral blood flow markers in Huntington's disease using single photo emission computed tomography. J Neurol Psychiatry 1988; 51: 1264–68.Google Scholar
150Smith, F, Besson, J, Gemmell, H et al. The use of Tc-99-HMPAO in the assessment of patients with dementia and other neuropsychiatrie disorders. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 1988; 8: S116–S122.Google Scholar
151Berent, S, Giordani, B, Lehtinen, S et al. Positron emission tomographic scan investigations of Huntington's disease: cerebral metabolic correlates of cognitive function. Ann Neurol 1988; 23: 541–46.Google Scholar
152Baxter, LR, Mazziotta, JC, Pahl, JJ et al. Psychiatric, genetic, and positron emission tomographic evaluation of persons at risk for Huntington's disease. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1992; 49: 148–54.Google Scholar
153Goldberg, TE, Berman, KF, Mohr, E, Weinberger, DR. Regional cerebral blood flow and cognitive function in Huntington's disease and schizophrenia – a comparison of patients matched for performance on a prefrontal-type task. Arch Neurol 1990; 47: 418–22.Google Scholar
154Brugieres, P, Combes, C, Ricolfi, F et al. Atypical MR presentation of Wilson disease: a possible consequence of paramagnetic effect of copper? Neuroradiol 1992; 34: 222–24.Google Scholar
155Grimm, G, Prayer, L, Oder, W et al. Comparison of functional and structural brain disturbances in Wilson's disease. Neurology 1991; 41: 272–76.Google Scholar
156Thuomas, KA, Aquilonius, SM, Bergström, K, Westermark, K. Magnetic resonance imaging of the brain in Wilson's disease. Neuroradiol 1993; 35: 134–41.Google Scholar
157Chida, K, Tamura, M, Kamikura, I, Takasu, T, Goto, N. A quantitative evaluation of pontine volume by computed tomography in patients with cerebellar degeneration. Neurol 1990; 40: 1241–45.Google Scholar
158Abe, K, Fujimura, H, Toyooka, K et al. Single-photon emission computed tomographic investigation of patients with motor neuron disease. Neurol 1993; 43: 1569–73.Google Scholar
159Mirowitz, S, Sartor, K, Gado, M, Torack, R. Focal signal-intensity variation in the posterior capsule: normal MR findings and distinction from pathological findings. Radiology 1989; 172: 535–39.Google Scholar
160Huber, SJ, Kissel, JT, Shuttleworth, EC et al. Magnetic resonance imaging and clinical correlates of intellectual impairment in myotonic dystrophy. Arch Neurol 1989; 46: 536–40.Google Scholar
161Förstl, H, Krumm, B, Eden, S, Kohlmeyer, K. What is the significance of bilateral basal ganglia mineralizaiton? Biol Psychiatry 1991; 29: 827–33.Google Scholar
162Förstl, H, Krumm, B, Eden, S, Kohlmeyer, K. Neurological disorders in 166 patients with basal ganglia calcification. J Neurol 1992; 239: 3638.Google Scholar
163Wikkelsö, C, Andersson, H, Blomstrand, C, Matousek, M, Svendsen, P. Computed tomography of the brain in the diagnosis of and prognosis in normal pressure hydrocephalus. Neuroradiol 1989; 31: 160–65.Google Scholar
164Tamaki, N, Shirakuni, T, Ehara, K, Matsumoto, S. Characterization of periventricular edema in normal pressure hydrocephalus by measurement of water proton relaxation times. J Neurosurg 1990; 73: 864–70.Google Scholar
165Matsuda, M, Nakasu, S, Nakazawa, T, Handa, J. Cerebral hemodynamics in patients with normal pressure hydrocephalus: correlation between cerebral circulation time and dementia. Surg Neurol 1990; 34: 396401.Google Scholar
166Waldemar, G, Schmidt, JF, Delecluse, F et al. High resolution SPET with 99-Tc-HMPAO in normal pressure hydrocephalus before and after shunt operation. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1993; 56: 655–64.Google Scholar
167Jordan, BD, Zimmerman, RD. Magnetic resonance imaging in amateur boxers. Arch Neurol 1988; 45: 1207–208.Google Scholar
168Alavi, A. Functional and anatomical studies of head injury. J Neuropsychol 1989; 1: S45–S50.Google Scholar
169Gray, BG, Ichise, M, Chung, D-G, Kirsh, JC, Franks, W. Technetium-99m-HMPAO SPECT in the evaluation of patients with a remote history of traumatic brain injury: a comparison with X-ray computed tomography. J Nuclear Med 1992; 33: 5258.Google Scholar
170Jacobson, RR, Lishman, WA. Cortical and diencephalic lesions in Korsakoff's syndrome: a clinical and CT scan study. Psychol Med 1990; 20: 6375.Google Scholar
171Denays, R, Tondeur, M, Ham, H et al. Regional cerebral blood flow in chronic alcoholics: a Tc-99m HMPAO SPECT study. NucCompact 1990; 21: 180–84.Google Scholar
172Erbas, B, Bekdik, C, Erbengi, G et al. Regional cerebral blood flow changes in chronic alcoholism using Tc-99m HMPAO SPECT – comparison with CT parameters. Clin Nucl Med 1992; 2: 123–27.Google Scholar
173Hunter, R, McCluskie, R, Wyper, D et al. The pattern of function-related regional cerebral blood flow investigated by single photon emission tomography with 99-Tc-HMPAO in patients with presenile Alzheimer's disease and Korsakoff's psychosis. Psychol Med 1989; 19: 847–55.Google Scholar
174Gilman, S, Adams, K, Koeppe, RA et al. Cerebellar and frontal hypometabolism in alcoholic cerebellar degeneration studied with positron emission tomography. Ann Neurol 1990; 28: 775–85.Google Scholar
175Callanan, MM, Logsdail, SJ, Ron, MA, Warrington, EK. Cognitive impairment in patients with clinically isolated lesions of the type seen in multiple sclerosis. A psychometric and MRI study. Brain 1989; 112: 361–74.Google Scholar
176Rao, SM, Leo, GJ, Haughton, VM, Aubin-Faubert, PS, Bernardin, L. Correlation of magnetic resonance imaging with neuropsychological testing in multiple sclerosis. Neurology 1989; 39: 161–66.Google Scholar
177Franklin, GM, Nelson, LM, Filley, CM, Heaton, RK. Cognitive loss in multiple sclerosis – case reports and review of the literature. Arch Neurol 1989; 46: 162–67.Google Scholar
178Feinstein, A, du Boulay, G, Ron, MA. Psychotic illness in multiple sclerosis – a clinical and magnetic resonance imaging study. Br J Psychiatry 1992; 161: 680–85.Google Scholar
179Chrysikopoulos, HS, Press, GA, Grafe, MR, Hesselink, JR, Clayton, AW. Encephalitis caused by human immunodeficiency virus: CT and MR imaging manifestations with clinical and pathologic correlation. Radiology 1990; 175: 185–91.Google Scholar
180Rodesch, G, Parizel, PM, Farber, C-M et al. Nervous system manifestations and neuroradiologic findings in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Neuroradiol 1989; 31: 3339.Google Scholar
181Pohl, P, Vogl, G, Fill, H et al. Single photo emission computed tomography in AIDS dementia complex. J Nucl Med 1988; 29: 1382–86.Google Scholar
182Mundinger, A, Adam, T, Ott, D et al. CT and MRI: prognostic tools in patients with AIDS and neurological deficits. Neuroradiol 1992; 35: 7578.Google Scholar
183Olsen, WL, Longo, FM, Mills, CM, Norman, D. White matter disease in AIDS: findings at MR imaging. Radiology 1988; 169: 445–48.Google Scholar
184Hansman Whiteman, ML, Donovan Post, MJ, Berger, JR et al. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in 47 HIV-seropositive patients: neuroimaging with clinical and pathologic correlation. Radiology 1993; 187: 233–40.Google Scholar
185Mark, AS, Atlas, SW. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in patients with AIDS: appearance on MR images. Radiology 1989; 73: 517–20.Google Scholar
186Baldwin, RC. Late life depression and structural brain changes: a review of recent magnetic resonance imaging research. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 1983; 8: 115–23.Google Scholar
187Alexopoulos, GS, Young, RC, Shindledecker, RD. Brain computed tomography findings in geriatric depression and primary degenerative dementia. Biol Psychiatry 1992; 31: 591–99.Google Scholar
188Beats, B, Levy, R, Förstl, H. Ventricular enlargement and caudate hyperdensity in elderly depressives. Biol Psychiatry 1991; 30: 452–58.Google Scholar
189Abas, MA, Sahakian, BJ, Levy, R. Neuropsychological deficits and CT scan changes in elderly depressives. Psychol Med 1990; 20: 507–20.Google Scholar
190Schlegel, S, Maier, W, Philipp, M et al. Computed tomography in depression: association between ventricular size and psychopathology. Psychiatry Res 1989; 29: 221–30.Google Scholar
191Rabins, PV, Pearlson, GD, Aylward, E, Kumar, AJ, Dowell, K. Cortical magnetic resonance imaging changes in elderly inpatients with major depression. Am J Psychiatry 1991; 148: 617–20.Google Scholar
192Zubenko, GS, Sullivan, P, Nelson, JP et al. Brain imaging abnormalities in mental disorders of late life. Arch Neurol 1990; 47: 1107–11.Google Scholar
193Coffey, CE, Figiel, GS, Djang, WT, Weiner, RD. Subcortical hyperintensity on magnetic resonance imaging: a comparison of normal and depressed elderly subjects. Am J Psychiatry 1990; 147: 187–89.Google Scholar
194Churchill, CM, Priolo, CV, Nemeroff, CB, Krishnan, KRR, Breitner, JCS. Occult subcortial magnetic resonance findings in elderly depressives. Int J Geriar Psychiatry 1991; 6: 213–16.Google Scholar
195Philpot, MP, Banerjee, S, Needham-Bennett, H, Campos Costa, D, Ell, PJ. 99mTc-HMPAO single photon emission tomography in late depression: a pilot study of regional cerebral blood flow at rest and during a verbal fluency task. J Affect Disord 1993;28: 233–40.Google Scholar
196Sackeim, HA, Prohovnik, I, Moeller, JR et al. Regional cerebral blood flow in mood disorders -I. Comparison of major depressives and normal controls at rest. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1990; 47: 6070.Google Scholar
197Guze, BH, Baxter, LR, Schwartz, JM et al. Changes in glucose metabolism in dementia of the Alzheimer type compared with depression: a preliminary report. Psychiatry Res (Neuroimaging) 1991; 40: 195202.Google Scholar
198Förstl, H, Howard, R, Almeida, OP, Stadtmüller, G. Psychotic symptoms and the paraphrenic brain. In: Katona, C, Levy, R eds. London: Gaskell, Delusions and hallucinations in the elderly. 1992:153–70.Google Scholar
199Krull, AJ, Press, G, Dupont, R, Harris, J, Jeste, DV. Brain imaging in late-onset schizophrenia and related psychoses. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 1991; 6: 651–58.Google Scholar
200Shelton, RC, Karson, CN, Doran, AR et al. Cerebral structural pathology in schizophrenia: evidence for a selective prefrontal cortical defect. Am J Psychiatry 1988;145: 154–63.Google Scholar
201Pfefferbaum, A, Zipursky, RB, Lim, KO et al. Computed tomographic evidence for generalized sulcal and ventricular enlargement in schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1988; 45: 633–40.Google Scholar
202Zipursky, RB, Lim, KO, Sullivan, EV, Brown, BW, Pfefferbaum, A. Widespread cerebral gray matter volume deficits in schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1992; 49: 195205.Google Scholar
203Harvey, I, Ron, MA, du Boulay, G et al. Reduction of cortical volume in schizophrenia on magnetic resonance imaging. Psychol Med 1993; 23: 591604.Google Scholar
204Suddath, RL, Casanova, MF, Goldberg, TE et al. Temporal lobe pathology in schizophrenia: a quantitative magnetic resonance imaging study. Am J Psychiatry 1989; 146: 464–72.Google Scholar
205Breier, A, Buchanan, RW, Elkashef, A et al. Brain morphology and schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1992; 49: 921–26.Google Scholar
206Kawasaki, Y, Maeda, Y, Urata, K et al. A quantitative magnetic resonance imaging study of patients with schizophrenia. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neursci 1993; 242: 268–72.Google Scholar
207Andreasen, NC, Rezai, K, Alliger, R et al. Hypofrontality in neuroleptic-naive patients and in patients with chronic schizophrenia – assessment with Xenon 133 single-photon emission computed tomography and the Tower of London test. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1992; 49: 943–58.Google Scholar
208Buchsbaum, MS, Haier, RJ, Potkin, SG et al. Frontostriatal disorder of cerebral metabolism in never-medicated schizophrenics. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1992; 49: 935–42.Google Scholar
209Miller, BL, Lesser, IM, Mena, I et al. Psychosis in neurologic diseases – regional cerebral blood flow in late-life-onset psychosis. Neuropsychiatry Neuropsychol Behavior Neurol 1992; 5: 132–37.Google Scholar
210Miller, BL, Lesser, IM, Boone, KB et al. Brain lesions and cognitive function in late-life psychosis. Br J Psychiatry 1991; 158: 7682.Google Scholar
211Damasio, H, Frank, R. Three-dimensional in vivo mapping of brain lesions in humans. Arch Neurol 1992;49: 137–43.Google Scholar
212Kohn, MI, Tanna, NK, Herman, GT et al. Analysis of brain and cerebrospinal fluid volumes with MR imaging. Radiology 1991; 178: 115–22.Google Scholar
213Ruttimann, UE, Joyce, EM, Rio, DE, Eckardt, MJ. Fully automated segmentation of cerebrospinal fluid in computed tomography. Psychiat Res (Neuroimaging). 1993; 50: 101–19.Google Scholar
214Arndt, S, Cohen, G, Alliger, RJ, Swayze, VW, Andreasen, NC. Problems with ratio and proportion measures of imaged cerebral structures. Psychiatr Res (Neuroimaging) 1991; 40: 7989.Google Scholar
215Mathalon, DH, Sullivan, EV, Rawles, JM, Pfefferbaum, A. Correction of head size in brain-imaging measurements. Psychiat Res (Neuroimaging) 1993;50: 121–39.Google Scholar
216Harvey, I, Williams, M, Toone, BK et al. The ventricular-brain ratio (VBR) in functional psychoses: the relationship of lateral ventricular and total intracranial area. Psychol Med 1990; 20: 5562.Google Scholar
217Förstl, H, Burns, A, Eagger, S, Levy, R. Head size in dementia. Br J Psychiat 1992; 160: 108109.Google Scholar
218Andreasen, NC, Flaum, M, Swayze, V et al. Intelligence and brain structure in normal individuals. Am J Psychiatry 1993; 150: 130–34.Google Scholar
219Gur, RC, Erwin, RJ, Gur, RE. Neurobehavioral probes for physiologic neuroimaging studies. Arch Gen Psychiat 1992; 49: 409–14.Google Scholar
220Tanna, NK, Kohn, MI, Horwich, DN et al. Analysis of brain and cerebrospinal fluid volumes with MR imaging: impact on PET data correciton for atrophy – Part II. Aging and Alzheimer dementia. Radiol 1991; 178: 123–30.Google Scholar
221Parks, RW, Crockett, DJ, Tuokko, H et al. Neuropsychological ‘systems efficiency’ and positron emission tomography. J Neuropsychiatry 1989; 1: 269–82.Google Scholar