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INTRODUCTION
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 06 November 2020
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References
1 Yusuf ibn Ali ibn Ahmad Qaramanli (1766–1838), Pasha of Tripoli, 1795–1832.
2 Originally, there were two Secretaries of State (otherwise known as the Secretaries for Home and Foreign affairs), but, after the creation of the Colonial Office in 1794, a third Secretary of State, Henry Dundas, was appointed as Secretary of State for War. From 1801, this portfolio was expanded to include colonial affairs and so the role became the Secretary of State for War and Colonies. See Sainty, J.C. (ed.), Office-Holders in Modern Britain, Vol. 6: Colonial Office (London, 1976)Google Scholar.
3 The National Archives (hereafter TNA), Foreign Office (hereafter FO) 8/12, R.W. Hay to W. Hill, 12 April 1826. See also Wood, A.C., A History of the Levant Company (London, 1964)Google Scholar; Laidlaw, C., The British in the Levant: Trade and Perceptions of the Ottoman Empire in the Eighteenth Century (London, 2010)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
4 Simon Lucas (d.1801), British consul to Tripoli, 1793–1801.
5 William Wass Langford (b. c.1768), British consul to Tripoli, 1804–1812.
6 Hanmer George Warrington (1776–1847), British consul to Tripoli, 1814–1846. Warrington had seven sons and three daughters with his wife Jane. Those mentioned in this volume include Frederick, Louisa, and Walter Bornou.
7 Sir William à Court (1779–1860), 1st Baron Heytesbury; after appointments on missions to Naples, 1801–1807, and then Vienna in 1807, à Court became First Commissioner in Malta in 1812, then Envoy Extraordinary to the Barbary States, 1813–1814.
8 See Appendix 1, p. 339, for a chronological table of British agents appointed to the Regency of Tripoli, 1793–1832.
9 See, for example, FO 76/29 for communications between consul Hanmer Warrington and Sheikh Abd’ al-Jalil Saif al-Nasser; FO 160/35, for correspondence with fellow consuls in North Africa, as well as FO 160/37 and FO 160/38 for communication with the Russian Ambassador H.E. A. d'Italinsky in Büyükdere (in the province of Istanbul) and British officials in Malta.
10 FO 76/5, Simon Lucas to Duke of Portland, 30 June 1795; See, for example, Lee, H.I., ‘The supervising of the Barbary consuls during the years 1756–1836’, Historical Research, 23 (1950), 191–199CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Cf. Platt, D.C.M., The Cinderella Service: British Consuls since 1825 (London, 1971)Google Scholar; and Anderson, M.S., ‘Great Britain and the Barbary states in the eighteenth century’, Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research, 29:79 (1956), 87–107Google Scholar. For further information on the history of the consular service and the Levant Company, see: Middleton, C.R., The Administration of British Foreign Policy, 1782–1846 (Durham, NC, 1977)Google Scholar; Srhir, K. Ben, Britain and Morocco During the Embassy of John Drummond Hay (London, 2004)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Berridge, G.R., British Diplomacy in Turkey, 1583 to the Present: A Study in the Evolution of the Resident Embassy (Leiden, 2009)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Goey, F. de, Consuls and the Institutions of Global Capitalism, 1783–1914 (London, 2014)Google Scholar; Jones, R.A., The Nineteenth-Century Foreign Office: Administrative History (London, 1971)Google Scholar; Lambert, D. and Lester, A. (eds), Colonial Lives Across the British Empire: Imperial Careering in the Long Nineteenth Century (Cambridge, 2006)Google Scholar; Wood, A.C., A History of the Levant Company (London, 1964)Google Scholar.
11 Sheikh Abd’ al-Jalil Saif al-Nasser, head of the tribal confederacy of the Awlad Suliman and son-in-law to the Emperor of Morocco, continually challenged the authority of Yusuf Qaramanli.
12 Between 1798 and 1830, there were at least two further attempts, in 1805 and 1807, to launch, by sea and land, expeditions eastwards through Egypt and Central Asia, but these plans were not realized. See H.H. Dodwell, (ed.), The Cambridge History of the British Empire, Vol. 4: British India, 1497–1858 (Cambridge, 1929), 331; FO 76/31, Hanmer Warrington to Viscount Goderich, 10 April 1832, 279.
13 C.R. Prinsep, ‘Grounds of an Opinion in favour of Colonizing the Africa Coast of the Mediterranean from Great Britain’, in FO 8/2, Prinsep to Castlereagh, 26 June 1816. See also FO 76/9, Warrington to Earl Bathurst, Tripoli, 21 July 1815, and FO 76/19, Warrington to Earl Bathurst, Tripoli, 9 February 1825. Further biographical details are available in a recent publication on Charles Robert Prinsep's son, Henry Charles Prinsep (1844–1922), by M. Allbrook, Henry Prinsep's Empire: Framing a Distant Colony (Canberra, 2014). Some additional details on the life and career of Prinsep are included in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography entry on his brother, Henry Thoby, see A.J. Arbuthnot, ‘Prinsep, Henry Thoby (1792–1878)’, rev. R.J. Bingle, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, Jan. 2008. http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/22811 (accessed 20 January 2020).
14 The Giornale di Malta was renamed Gazzetta del Governo di Malta in 1812 and was the government of Malta's official news publication of the day. Issues of the contemporaneous but privately run French newspaper, Galignani's Messenger, are available from 1814–1895 onwards: https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb32779538j/date.item (accessed 3 March 2020).
15 FO 76/5, Simon Lucas to Duke of Portland, Tripoli, 9 April 1797.
16 FO 76/6, William Wass Langford to William Windham, 14 April 1807; FO 76/6, Langford to Viscount Castlereagh, 1 December 1807; FO 76/6, Langford to Castlereagh, 23 August 1808; FO 76/6, Langford to Castlereagh, 31 December 1809; and FO 76/7, Langford to Lord Liverpool, 1 February 1810.
17 FO 76/6, Langford to Viscount Castlereagh, 1 December 1807.
18 FO 76/7, Langford to Lieutenant Colonel Gordon, 25 September 1810.
19 FO 76/20, Warrington to R.W. Hay, 26 June 1826.
20 Ibid.
21 Captain William Henry Smyth (1788–1865), Royal Navy officer, undertook extensive surveys of the North African coastline, and the wider Mediterranean in 1817 and 1823. On the early career of Smyth, see J. Marshall, Naval Biography, or, Memoirs of the Services of all the Flag-Officers, Superannuated Rear-Admirals, Retired-Captains, and Commanders, whose Names appeared on the Admiralty List of Sea-Officers at the commencement of the year 1823, or who have since been promoted, Vol. 3, Part 1 (London, 1831), 136–190; and J.K. Laughton, ‘Smyth, William Henry (1788–1865)’, rev. R.O. Morris, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, May 2015. http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/25961.
22 FO 76/15, Warrington to Earl Bathurst, 21 September 1821; FO 76/21, Warrington to R.W. Hay, 2 February 1827.
23 FO 76/14, Warrington to Earl Bathurst, 5 August 1820.
24 FO 76/14, Warrington to Earl Bathurst, 5 August 1820; FO 76/18, Warrington to Earl Bathurst, 23 September 1824.
25 FO 76/17, Warrington to Robert Wilmot Horton, 1 July 1823; FO 76/9, Warrington to Earl Bathurst, 27 July 1815.
26 Major Dixon Denham (1786–1828), explorer of northern and central Africa, member of the Bornu mission from Tripoli in 1822.
27 Louis Maurice Adolphe Linant de Bellefonds (1799–1883), explorer of Egypt, also known as ‘Linant Pasha’, chief engineer of Egypt's public works in the modern era and of the Suez Canal.
28 FO 76/5, Bryan McDonogh to Duke of Portland, 1 November 1801; and FO 76/6, Langford to Lord Hawkesbury, 31 March 1808.
29 Dr Walter Oudney (1790–1824), Naval surgeon and explorer of central Africa, contributed to the publication of Narrative of Travels and Discoveries in Northern and Central Africa in the Years 1822, 1823, and 1824 by Dixon Denham, Hugh Clapperton and Walter Oudney (London, 1826).
30 FO 76/17, Warrington to R.W. Horton, 7 November 1823; FO 76/16, Warrington to R.W. Horton, 21 July 1822; FO 76/17, Warrington to R.W. Horton, 20 December 1823; and FO 76/19, Warrington to R.W. Horton, 24 July 1825.
31 Mohamed Ali of Egypt.
32 FO 76/16, Warrington to R.W. Horton, 20 October 1822.
33 A ‘maraboot’ or marabout was essentially a religious leader and holy man of influence of whom both locals and foreigners could seek aid and protection in times of need.
34 FO 76/20, Warrington to Earl Bathurst, 25 October 1826.
35 FO 76/6, Langford to Viscount Castlereagh, 29 September 1809; FO 76/6, Langford to Viscount Castlereagh, 20 October 1809; FO 76/7, Langford to Lord Collingwood, 11 February 1810; FO 76/7, Langford to Lord Liverpool, 7 April 1810; and FO 76/7, Langford to Lord Liverpool, 15 July 1810.
36 Robert Banks Jenkinson (1770–1828), known as Lord Hawkesbury from 1796, cr. Baron Hawkesbury 1803, 2nd Earl of Liverpool 1808; MP, Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, Home Secretary and Secretary of State for War and the Colonies; Prime Minister (1812–1827); in earlier letters here addressed as Baron or Lord Hawkesbury, later as Lord Liverpool.
37 FO 76/7, Langford to Lord Liverpool, 11 May 1810.
38 FO 76/6, Langford to Lord Hawkesbury, 31 March 1808; and FO 76/6, Langford to Viscount Castlereagh, 30 April 1809.
39 FO 76/17, Warrington to R.W. Horton, 17 October 1823.
40 FO 76/5, Richard Tully to Henry Dundas, 15 January 1793.
41 FO 76/17, Warrington to R.W. Horton, 17 October 1823.
42 Mohamed Dorby, emissary of Mohamed Ali, arrived in Tripoli in 1822 to obtain settlement of debts between the Regency of Tripoli and Egypt.
43 FO 76/17, Warrington to R.W. Horton, 16 November 1823.
44 FO 76/18, Warrington to R.W. Horton, 22 July 1824; FO 76/20, Warrington to Earl Bathurst, 15 April 1826; FO 76/20, Warrington to Earl Bathurst, 26 December 1826; and FO 76/27, Warrington to R.W. Hay, 1 August 1830.
45 Vice Admiral Sir Edward Codrington (1770–1851), served in the Napoleonic Wars and the Greek Wars of Independence and, in 1827, defeated the Egyptian-Ottoman fleet at the Battle of Navarino Bay.
46 FO 76/23, Sir Edward Codrington to Warrington, 12 November 1827.
47 FO 76/33, Warrington to Sir Edward Codrington, 15 November 1827.
48 FO 76/22, Lieutenant Colonel William Martin Leake to R.W. Hay, 1 December 1827.
49 Mohamed Qaramanli (d.1828), eldest son of Yusuf Pasha, returned from an exile in Egypt in 1820, subsequently appointed Bey of Derna.
50 Ali Qaramanli, son of Yusuf Pasha, claimed the throne in 1832 after a protracted civil war with Mohamed ibn Mohamed ibn Yusuf ibn Ali Qaramanli, the rightful heir to the throne.
51 FO 76/23, Warrington to William Huskisson, 16 June 1828; FO 76/31, Warrington to R.W. Hay, 9 February 1832.
52 FO 76/29, Warrington to Viscount Goderich, 30 September 1831.
53 FO 76/29, Warrington to R.W. Hay, 7 November 1831.
54 FO 76/30, Warrington to R.W. Hay, 12 February 1832.
55 See, for example, Consul Langford's report in 1810 on the state of ‘Corn’, ‘Cattle’, ‘Horses’, ‘Money’, ‘Tripoli Coin’, ‘Coast’, ‘Winds’, and ‘Current’ in the Regency, FO 76/7, Langford to J.W. Gordon, 25 September 1810. Consul Warrington undertook similar reports, FO 76/9, Warrington to Earl Bathurst, 27 July 1815, and ‘Extracts from A Short Account of Tripoli in the West’ (1844), on the topics of: ‘Desert’, ‘Mountains’, ‘Rain’, ‘Temperature’, ‘Population’, ‘Districts’, and ‘Sovereigns of the Interior’.
56 FO 76/20, Warrington to Earl Bathurst, 19 February 1826. On the gun salute, cf. FO 76/5, Lucas to Henry Dundas, 22 August 1793 and FO 76/9, Warrington to Earl Bathurst, 10 December 1814.
57 FO 76/27, Warrington to R.W. Hay, 8 March 1830; for details of the treaties of 1662, 1751, and 1816 between England and Tripoli, see Hertslet, L. (ed.), A Complete Collection of the Treaties and Conventions at Present Subsisting Between Great Britain and Foreign Powers, Vols 1–2 (Whitehall, London: T. Egerton, 1820)Google Scholar. Note, however, the treaty listings between Great Britain and the Regencies of North Africa are not complete, as for example, a treaty between England and Tripoli that was concluded in 1762 (that is also discussed in the correspondence relative to the protection of the inhabitants of Minorca, Gibraltar and Malta) is not included in Hertslet's volumes, see FO 76/21, W. Huskisson to Warrington, 6 January 1828. A treaty concluded in 1698 between England and Algiers, ‘Extract of the Treaty between England and Algiers in 1698, – removed and conformed by subsequent Treaties’ is also not detailed in Hertslet's volumes (wherein there is no treaty cited between Algiers and England from 5 April 1686 to 17 August 1700). For an extract of the 1689 treaty agreement between Algiers and England, see FO 8/2.
58 Francis Werry (1745–1832), British consul to Smyrna, 1805–1829.
59 Cf. FO 76/7, Langford to Lord Liverpool, 29 April 1810; and FO 76/7, Langford to Lord Liverpool, 17 May 1811.
60 FO 76/14, Warrington to Earl Bathurst, 7 February 1820; and FO 76/17, Warrington to R.W. Horton, 31 March 1823.
61 FO 76/9, J. Dalrymple to Warrington, 3 September 1814, enclosed in FO 76/9, Warrington to Earl Bathurst, 10 December 1814.
62 Baron Bartholomäus von Stürmer (1787–1863), His I.E. Apostolic Majesty's Internuncio.
63 FO 76/9, Warrington to Earl Bathurst, 16 February 1814.
64 Jacques-Denis Delaporte (1777–1861), French vice consul and head of the chancellery in Tripoli, 1806–1918.
65 FO 76/9, Warrington to Earl Bathurst, 11 September 1815.
66 FO 76/18, Warrington to R.W. Horton, 7 January 1824.
67 FO 76/20, Warrington to Earl Bathurst, 3 July 1826; and FO 76/21, Warrington to Earl Bathurst, 22 May 1827.
68 Lieutenant Hugh Clapperton (1788–1827), explorer of northern and central Africa. In 1822, Clapperton was dispatched on a mission to Bornu with Walter Oudney and Dixon Denham.
69 See for example, FO 76/21, Warrington to R.W. Hay, 29 July 1827; FO 76/22, Warrington to Viscount Goderich, 26 October 1827; FO 76/23, Warrington to W. Huskisson, 1 July 1828; and FO 76/23, Warrington to Sir George Murray, 29 August 1828; Major Alexander Gordon Laing (1794–1826), African explorer and son-in-law to the British consul in Tripoli. Laing was assassinated on his departure from Timbuktu in September 1826.
70 FO 76/23, Warrington to Sir Edward Codrington, 15 November 1827; and FO 76/12, Colonial Office unsigned note, 7 January 1828.
71 FO 76/29, Warrington to Viscount Goderich, 18 July 1831; FO 76/29, Warrington to Viscount Goderich, 4 August 1831; and FO 76/29, Warrington to R.W. Hay, 27 September 1831. Cf. FO 76/29, Warrington to R.W. Hay, 23 December 1831; FO 76/31, Warrington to Viscount Goderich, 10 May 1832; and FO 76/31, Warrington to Viscount Goderich, 17 July 1832.
72 FO 76/32, Warrington to Viscount Goderich, 6 August 1832.